Mtoto apandikizwa pua mpya India

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Madaktari nchini India wamepandikiza pua mpya katika uso wa mvulana wa miaka 12 iliokuwa imemea katika paa lake la uso.

Pua ya Arun Patel iliharibika alipougua ugonjwa wa homa ya kichomi

Maambukizi hayo yaliharibu pua yake akiwa mtoto mdogo.

Upandikizaji kama huo ulifanywa nchini China mwaka 2013 ambapo mtu mmoja ambaye aliharibu pua yake katika ajali alipewa pua mpya.

Wazazi wa Arun walimchukua na kumpeleka katika daktari mwengine katika kijiji cha jimbo la kati la Madhya Pradesh ambapo aliugua kichomi mda mfupi baada ya kuzaliwa.

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Lakini matibabu aliyopewa yaliongeza hali yake na hivyobasi kupoteza pua yake.

Miaka kadhaa baadaye,kundi moja la madaktari katika mji wa Indore liliamua kufanya upasuaji usiokuwa wa kawaida ambapo Arun alipata pua mpya.

Normative ethics

Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.^[1]

Most traditional moral theories rest on principles that determine whether an action is right or wrong. Classical theories in this vein include utilitarianism, Kantianism, and some forms of contractarianism. These theories mainly offered overarching moral principles to use to resolve difficult moral decisions.

·         1 Normative ethical theories

·         2 Binding force

o    2.1 Motivating morality

Normative ethical theories

There are disagreements about what precisely gives an action, rule, or disposition its ethical force. Broadly speaking, there are three competing views on how moral questions should be answered, along with hybrid positions that combine some elements of each. Virtue ethics focuses on the character of those who are acting, while both deontological ethics and consequentialism focus on the status of the action, rule, or disposition itself. The latter two conceptions of ethics themselves come in various forms.

·         Virtue ethics, advocated by Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on specific actions. There has been a significant revival of virtue ethics in the past half-century, through the work of such philosophers as G. E. M. Anscombe, Philippa Foot, Alasdair Macintyre,Mortimer J. Adler, Jacques Maritain, Yves Simon, and Rosalind Hursthouse.

·         Deontology argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and others' rights. Some deontological theories include:

·         Immanuel Kant's Categorical Imperative, which roots morality in humanity's rational capacity and asserts certain inviolable moral laws.

·         The contractualism of John Rawls, which holds that the moral acts are those that we would all agree to if we were unbiased.

·         Natural rights theories, such that of John Locke or Robert Nozick, which holds that human beings have absolute, natural rights.

·         Consequentialism (Teleology) argues that the morality of an action is contingent on the action's outcome or result. Consequentialism theories, differing in what they consider valuable (Axiology), include:

·         Utilitarianism, which holds that an action is right if it leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of people. (Historical Note: Prior to the coining of the term "consequentialism" by Anscombe in 1958 and the adoption of that term in the literature that followed, "utilitarianism" was the generic term for consequentialism, referring to all theories that promoted maximizing any form of utility, not just those that promoted maximizing happiness.)

·         State consequentialism or Mohist consequentialism, which holds that an action is right if it leads to state welfare, through order, material wealth, and population growth

·         Egoism, the belief that the moral person is the self-interested person, holds that an action is right if it maximizes good for the self.

·         Situation Ethics, which holds that the correct action is the one that creates the most loving result, and that love should always be our goal.

·         Intellectualism, which dictates that the best action is the one that best fosters and promotes knowledge.

·         Welfarism, which argues that the best action is the one that most increases economic well-being or welfare.

·         Preference utilitarianism, which holds that the best action is the one that leads to the most overall preference satisfaction.

·         Ethics of care or relational ethics, founded by feminist theorists, notably Carol Gilligan, argues that morality arises out of the experiences of empathy and compassion. It emphasizes the importance of interdependence and relationships in achieving ethical goals.

·         Pragmatic ethics is difficult to classify fully within any of the four preceding conceptions. This view argues that moral correctness evolves similarly to scientific knowledge: socially over the course of many lifetimes. Thus, we should prioritize social reform over concern with consequences, individual virtue or duty (although these may be worthwhile concerns, provided social reform is also addressed). Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, are known as the founders of pragmatism.

·         Role ethics is based on the concept of family roles.

Binding force

It can be unclear what it means to say that a person "ought to do X because it is moral, whether they like it or not". Morality is sometimes presumed to have some kind of special binding force on behavior, but some philosophers think that, used this way, the word "ought" seems to wrongly attribute magic powers to morality. For instance, G. E. M. Anscombe worries that "ought" has become "a word of mere mesmeric force".^[2]British ethicist Phillipa Foot elaborates that morality does not seem to have any special binding force, and she clarifies that people only behave morally when motivated by other factors.

If he is an amoral man he may deny that he has any reason to trouble his head over this or any other moral demand. Of course, he may be mistaken, and his life as well as others' lives may be most sadly spoiled by his selfishness. But this is not what is urged by those who think they can close the matter by an emphatic use of 'ought'. My argument is that they are relying on an illusion, as if trying to give the moral 'ought' a magic force.

Foot says "People talk, for instance, about the 'binding force' of morality, but it is not clear what this means if not that we feel ourselves unable to escape."^[3] The idea is that, faced with an opportunity to steal a book because we can get away with it, moral obligation itself has no power to stop us unless we feel an obligation. Morality may therefore have no binding force beyond regular human motivations, and people must be motivated to behave morally. The question then arises: what role does reason play in motivating moral behavior?

Motivating

The categorical imperative perspective suggests that proper reason always leads to particular moral behavior. As mentioned above, Foot instead believes that humans are actually motivated by desires. Proper reason, on this view, allows humans to discover actions that get them what they want (i.e., hypothetical imperatives)—not necessarily actions that are moral.

Social structure and motivation can make morality binding in a sense, but only because it makes moral norms feel inescapable, according to Foot.^[3] John Stuart Mill adds that external pressures, to please others for instance, also influence this felt binding force, which he calls human "conscience". Mill says that humans must first reason about what is moral, then try to bring the feelings of our conscience in line with our reason.^[4] At the same time, Mill says that a good moral system (in his case, utilitarianism) ultimately appeals to aspects of human nature — which, must themselves be nurtured during upbringing. Mill explains:

This firm foundation is that of the social feelings of mankind; the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures, which is already a powerful principle in human nature, and happily one of those which tend to become stronger, even without express inculcation, from the influences of advancing civilization.

Mill thus believes that it is important to appreciate that it is feelings that drive moral behavior, but also that they may not be present in some people (e.g. psychopaths). Mill goes on to describe factors that help ensure people develop a conscience and behave morally, and thinkers like Joseph Daleiden describe how societies can use science to figure out how to make people more likely to be good.

Teaching Portfolio

Introduction

What is a teaching portfolio?
A teaching portfolio is a collection of documents that together provide a record of:

• The ideas and objectives that inform your teaching
• The courses you teach or are prepared to teach
• The methods you use
• Your effectiveness as a teacher
• How you assess and improve your teaching

                         


While dissertation abstracts and research summaries document your expertise in research, the teaching portfolio documents your expertise in teaching. If you are a graduate student or postdoctoral fellow preparing a teaching portfolio for the academic job market, the portfolio will necessarily be both forward- and backward-looking, with examples drawn from courses you have taught or assisted in and from courses you are prepared to teach in the future. While you should always present to search committees a version of your portfolio that is well-organized, clear, and polished, you should also think of your portfolio as a work-in-progress that you will continue to revise throughout your academic career. Finally, your portfolio should be selective rather than comprehensive. It is NOT a holding place for all your teaching materials; it presents the syllabi, assignments, and other materials that best illustrate your teaching approach and methods.
What are the major components of a teaching portfolio?
1. A Teaching Philosophy Statement
A concise, specific statement of your approaches and methods is the lynchpin of the portfolio. (See Writing a Teaching Philosophy Statement.)
2. Examples and Evidence of the approaches and methods you outline in the Teaching Philosophy Statement. These documents might include the following:

• Sample Syllabi (See Preparing a Syllabus.)
• Courses Taught (note if TA or course instructor)
• Courses Planned (tailor for specific applications)
• Sample Assignments and Assessments
• Essay assignments
• Exams
• Comments on student papers
• Evidence of Teaching Effectiveness
• Student evaluations
• Evaluations by faculty member or other observer
• Teaching awards
• Video of a class
• Evidence of Professional Development
• Teaching workshops, seminars, publications, etc.

Why create a teaching portfolio?
A Teaching Portfolio is a useful tool that can help you:

• Develop, clarify, and reflect on your teaching philosophy, methods, and approaches
• Present teaching credentials for hiring and promotion in an academic position
• Document professional development in teaching
• Identify areas for improvement
• Prepare for the interview process

What Can You Do to Make Your Portfolio Effective?

Shape Content and Format with the Audience in Mind
The key to creating an effective portfolio is to shape both content and format for a specific audience. Take care in selecting and organizing materials in a way that will be helpful to readers who, as members of search committees, are often deluged by application materials from hundreds of applicants. Each component should serve a specific purpose. More specifically, the examples and evidence you include in your portfolio should illustrate the approaches and methods you describe in the Teaching Philosophy Statement.
While you do not have to have a specific job or search committee in mind when you are beginning to compile your portfolio, it is essential that you anticipate and speak to the concerns of an academic search committee. At this stage of your career, it is this audience that is the most important when it comes to evaluating the portfolio and your expertise in teaching. (Later in your career, the audience will change to include colleagues in your field and, perhaps, a promotion-and-tenure committee.) Try to anticipate the questions that a search committee would want your portfolio to answer. For a list of potential questions about teaching that may be motivating search committees, see Writing a Teaching Philosophy Statement.
Ask faculty mentors, as well as graduate-student peers who have interviewed for academic positions, what they think search committees are looking for; these individuals are your best sources for learning about the expectations and issues that are particular to your field.
Consult the job advertisement and the Web site of the school to which you are applying to get a sense of the school’s mission and students, and the relative importance given to teaching and research within the school and the department.
Consider compiling a “master portfolio” in a three-ring binder or file-folder system, then culling materials from the “master portfolio” to create a portfolio that is tailored for a specific position to which you are applying. Keep in mind the type of position (e.g., teaching “load,” tenure expectations) and the specific teaching responsibilities that you would expect to fulfill in that position. Rather than including a random selection of syllabi for courses you are prepared to teach, for example, if you are applying for a position at a large university, you might include three syllabi: one for an introductory undergraduate course, one for an advanced undergraduate course, and one for a graduate-level course. If you are applying for a position at a small, liberal-arts college, you might include syllabi for a required, introductory lecture course or laboratory, a course for “non-majors,” and a more advanced seminar.
Being selective is especially important when including student evaluations. If you have plenty of evaluations in your files, do NOT include all of them in your portfolio. Instead, include two or three complete sets, with brief introductions that summarize each set and reflect on how you have used the feedback to improve your effectiveness as a teacher. You should also consider attaching the course syllabus, which will provide a context for the committee as they review the evaluations. It is NOT necessarily a good idea to include only evaluations that are positive. Search committees understand that the best teachers do not always get unanimously positive student evaluations. They may also suspect that you purposefully excluded evaluations that were negative and thus give less weight to the evaluations than you might expect. More than showing that students “like” you, your goal in including evaluations should be to show how you use feedback to improve your methods and to think critically about how best to improve student learning.

Tips for Organizing and Presenting Your Portfolio

Your teaching portfolio will not be effective if it is poorly organized, sloppy, or overly long. Here is a list of features that can help you organize your portfolio in a way that will make it easy for the search committee to use your portfolio to evaluate your teaching effectiveness:

• Title page
• Table of contents (or menu if your portfolio is electronic)
• Introduction or summary of portfolio contents
• Sections, with brief summaries of content for each section
• Most important: a summary that reflects on evaluations and how you have used them to improve your teaching effectiveness (see discussion of student evaluations, above)

Take care to present the portfolio in a neat and polished format. The point is not to dazzle the committee with an expensive and dramatic cover, but to take care to present the material in a professional way, with the goal of making it easy for the committee to read and refer to your teaching materials throughout the hiring process. Here are some presentational tips:

• Revise and edit all documents to correct mechanical errors and improve clarity.
• If you are preparing a “hard copy,” print all documents on high-quality paper, create a cover, and bind at copy shop.
• Consider adding a copyright symbol.
• Make additional copies if invited for an on-campus interview.
• Include a line on your curriculum vitae indicating that the portfolio is ”available upon request”

When Should You Create a Teaching Portfolio?

Begin creating a teaching portfolio as soon as your graduate training begins. Even before you set foot in the classroom as a Teaching Assistant or instructor, you should begin thinking about the ideas and objectives that will guide you when you do so. Reading articles and attending workshops on teaching will help you identify current issues and potential approaches. As you build your teaching experience, you should also be developing your portfolio, which you can then update, refine, and improve when you are entering the academic job market.
Be aware that some search committees may never ask for a teaching portfolio, while others will request “teaching materials” or “evidence of teaching effectiveness” at some point in the hiring process. Sending a teaching portfolio is often an excellent way to respond to the latter request. Different disciplines follow different protocols in regard to when it is acceptable to send unsolicited materials to a search committee. In general, however, it is usually not a good idea to send a portfolio unless requested. When in doubt about whether you should send a portfolio, contact the chairperson of the search committee.

How Can You Improve Your Teaching Portfolio?

Show the portfolio to faculty members and peers whose opinions you trust. Seek additional guidance from The Teaching Center. Address areas that you can improve now, as well as those you want to address in the future. The latter can provide interesting topics of conversation when you talk to search committees about your teaching, whether in formal interviews or informal discussions.

Links and References

Kaplan, Matthew. “The Teaching Portfolio.” The Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. University of Michigan. http://www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/CRLT_no11.pdf.

Rodriguez-Farrar, Hannelore B. Creating a Teaching Portfolio: A Handbook for Faculty, Teaching Assistants and Teaching Fellows. The Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning. Brown University. 2008. http://www.brown.edu/Administration/Sheridan_Center/teaching/documents/T….

Seldin, Peter. The Teaching Portfolio: A Practical Guide to Improved Performance and Promotion/Tenure Decisions. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc. 1991.

“Teaching Portfolios.” Center for Teaching. Vanderbilt University. http://www.vanderbilt.edu/cft/resources/teaching_resources/reflecting/portfolio.htm.

Vick, Julia Miller and Jennifer S. Furlong. The Academic Job Search Handbook. 4th ed. Philadelphia: U Pennsylvania P, 2008.