GE 349: SEMINAR QUESTION

Examine why Africa's mineral and energy resources have not stimulated real economic development in the content.

Washtakiwa 21 wafungwa jela maisha Burundi

Maandamano yalianza Burundi Aprili mwaka jana
Mahakama ya rufaa nchini Burundi imewahukumu washtakiwa 21 vifungo vya maisha jela baada ya kuwapata na hatia ya kushiriki jaribio la mapinduzi mwaka jana.
Washtakiwa hao ni kati ya 28 waliokuwa wameshtakiwa kuhusiana na jaribio hilo la Mei mwaka jana ambalo halikufaulu.
Miongoni mwao ni watano ambao walikuwa wamepatikana bila hatia na mahakama ya kwanza.
Mahakama hiyo ya rufaa imeagiza wakamatwe.
Upande wa mashtaka ulikata rufaa dhidi ya hukumu iliyotolewa na mahakama ya chini ukisema hukumu hiyo haikuwa kali vya kutosha.
UN: Watu 474 wameuawa Burundi
Mataifa ya Kifaransa yavunja uhusiano wao na Burundi
Wale waliopatikana na hatia pia wametakiwa kulipa zaidi ya $3.5m (£2.4m) kama fidia kutokana na vifo na uharibifu wa mali uliotokea wakati wa jaribio hilo la kupindua serikali.
Baadhi ya majenerali kwenye jeshi na baadi ya maafisa wakuu katika idara ya polisi walijaribu kumpindua Rais Pierre Nkurunziza baada yake kuamua kuwania urais kwa muhula wa tatu.
Uamuzi wa leo unatazamwa kama ushindi wa serikali ambayo imekuwa ikijaribu kujenga uhusiano wa moja kwa moja baina ya jaribio hilo la mapinduzi na maandamano ya kupinga hatua ya Rais Nkurunziza kuwania kwa muhula wa tatu.
Maandamano hayo yalianza wiki mbili kabla ya mapinduzi.

MAGAZETI YA LEO JUMAMOS MAY 7, 2016

Social linguistics

What is Sociolinguistics?

One of the goals of the MLC is to equip students with a solid knowledge – both theoretical and practical – of the tools we use to analyze social life from a linguistic perspective. The toolkit that students acquire during their time in the MLC is composed of the diverse analytical methods of three areas in linguistics: sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and discourse analysis.
Sociolinguistics is concerned with language in social and cultural context, especially how people with different social identities (e.g. gender, age, race, ethnicity, class) speak and how their speech changes in different situations. Some of the issues addressed are how features of dialects (ways of pronouncing words, choice of words, patterns of words) cluster together to form personal styles of speech; why people from different communities or cultures can misunderstand what is meant, said and done based on the different ways they use language. Sociolinguistics encompasses a range of methodologies, both quantitative and qualitative.

What is sociolinguistics? An MLC-er weighs in: “The study of how people use language in their everyday lives. Sociolinguistics looks at how identities are manifested through the words we use and how, through language, we (intentionally or unintentionally) create, maintain, and disrupt relationships with others.”

Pragmatics focuses on how speakers use language to present information and how hearers draw inferences from what is said about the speaker’s communicative intention. Some of the issues addressed are how particular ways of speaking (including the choice of words, sentence forms, and prosody (intonation, rhythm, pitch)) convey subtle features of messages; how language conveys ‘who did what, when, where, why, and how;’ how we use language to accomplish ‘speech acts’ (e.g. apologies, declarations, requests, threats) that bring us closer together or take us further apart.

What is sociolinguistics? An MLC-er weighs in: “Sociolinguistics is the study of language and society. It examines how language simultaneously arises out of and is used to construct social categories such as nationality, race, gender, age, etc. Cultural beliefs, values, and norms are encoded in language, and language reaffirms these aspects of culture.”

Discourse analysis focuses on language use ‘above’ the sentence (in text) and ‘beyond’ the sentence (in context). This perspective analyzes texts and contexts from a wide array of sites in everyday life, ranging, for example, from informal conversations among friends to doctor/patient interactions, office documents (memos, minutes), and televised political debates. Some of the issues addressed are the following: how texts build cohesion (the word and meaning relationships that ‘hold’ a text together) and coherence (the overall unity, topic, and message); how texts that tell a story (a narrative) differ from those that describe something, provide an explanation or list a set of instructions.

What is sociolinguistics? An MLC-er weighs in: “To a colleague or employer who asks ‘what is sociolinguistics?’ I might reply: sociolinguistics is the in-depth study of how language tells the story of us as a society over time, of how language resonates with us, and why.”

Explore academic and non-academic work relevant to the MLC’s mission of promoting sociolinguistics outside academia by looking at our list of cross-disciplinary articles.

Teaching Portfolio

Introduction

What is a teaching portfolio?
A teaching portfolio is a collection of documents that together provide a record of:

• The ideas and objectives that inform your teaching
• The courses you teach or are prepared to teach
• The methods you use
• Your effectiveness as a teacher
• How you assess and improve your teaching

                         


While dissertation abstracts and research summaries document your expertise in research, the teaching portfolio documents your expertise in teaching. If you are a graduate student or postdoctoral fellow preparing a teaching portfolio for the academic job market, the portfolio will necessarily be both forward- and backward-looking, with examples drawn from courses you have taught or assisted in and from courses you are prepared to teach in the future. While you should always present to search committees a version of your portfolio that is well-organized, clear, and polished, you should also think of your portfolio as a work-in-progress that you will continue to revise throughout your academic career. Finally, your portfolio should be selective rather than comprehensive. It is NOT a holding place for all your teaching materials; it presents the syllabi, assignments, and other materials that best illustrate your teaching approach and methods.
What are the major components of a teaching portfolio?
1. A Teaching Philosophy Statement
A concise, specific statement of your approaches and methods is the lynchpin of the portfolio. (See Writing a Teaching Philosophy Statement.)
2. Examples and Evidence of the approaches and methods you outline in the Teaching Philosophy Statement. These documents might include the following:

• Sample Syllabi (See Preparing a Syllabus.)
• Courses Taught (note if TA or course instructor)
• Courses Planned (tailor for specific applications)
• Sample Assignments and Assessments
• Essay assignments
• Exams
• Comments on student papers
• Evidence of Teaching Effectiveness
• Student evaluations
• Evaluations by faculty member or other observer
• Teaching awards
• Video of a class
• Evidence of Professional Development
• Teaching workshops, seminars, publications, etc.

Why create a teaching portfolio?
A Teaching Portfolio is a useful tool that can help you:

• Develop, clarify, and reflect on your teaching philosophy, methods, and approaches
• Present teaching credentials for hiring and promotion in an academic position
• Document professional development in teaching
• Identify areas for improvement
• Prepare for the interview process

What Can You Do to Make Your Portfolio Effective?

Shape Content and Format with the Audience in Mind
The key to creating an effective portfolio is to shape both content and format for a specific audience. Take care in selecting and organizing materials in a way that will be helpful to readers who, as members of search committees, are often deluged by application materials from hundreds of applicants. Each component should serve a specific purpose. More specifically, the examples and evidence you include in your portfolio should illustrate the approaches and methods you describe in the Teaching Philosophy Statement.
While you do not have to have a specific job or search committee in mind when you are beginning to compile your portfolio, it is essential that you anticipate and speak to the concerns of an academic search committee. At this stage of your career, it is this audience that is the most important when it comes to evaluating the portfolio and your expertise in teaching. (Later in your career, the audience will change to include colleagues in your field and, perhaps, a promotion-and-tenure committee.) Try to anticipate the questions that a search committee would want your portfolio to answer. For a list of potential questions about teaching that may be motivating search committees, see Writing a Teaching Philosophy Statement.
Ask faculty mentors, as well as graduate-student peers who have interviewed for academic positions, what they think search committees are looking for; these individuals are your best sources for learning about the expectations and issues that are particular to your field.
Consult the job advertisement and the Web site of the school to which you are applying to get a sense of the school’s mission and students, and the relative importance given to teaching and research within the school and the department.
Consider compiling a “master portfolio” in a three-ring binder or file-folder system, then culling materials from the “master portfolio” to create a portfolio that is tailored for a specific position to which you are applying. Keep in mind the type of position (e.g., teaching “load,” tenure expectations) and the specific teaching responsibilities that you would expect to fulfill in that position. Rather than including a random selection of syllabi for courses you are prepared to teach, for example, if you are applying for a position at a large university, you might include three syllabi: one for an introductory undergraduate course, one for an advanced undergraduate course, and one for a graduate-level course. If you are applying for a position at a small, liberal-arts college, you might include syllabi for a required, introductory lecture course or laboratory, a course for “non-majors,” and a more advanced seminar.
Being selective is especially important when including student evaluations. If you have plenty of evaluations in your files, do NOT include all of them in your portfolio. Instead, include two or three complete sets, with brief introductions that summarize each set and reflect on how you have used the feedback to improve your effectiveness as a teacher. You should also consider attaching the course syllabus, which will provide a context for the committee as they review the evaluations. It is NOT necessarily a good idea to include only evaluations that are positive. Search committees understand that the best teachers do not always get unanimously positive student evaluations. They may also suspect that you purposefully excluded evaluations that were negative and thus give less weight to the evaluations than you might expect. More than showing that students “like” you, your goal in including evaluations should be to show how you use feedback to improve your methods and to think critically about how best to improve student learning.

Tips for Organizing and Presenting Your Portfolio

Your teaching portfolio will not be effective if it is poorly organized, sloppy, or overly long. Here is a list of features that can help you organize your portfolio in a way that will make it easy for the search committee to use your portfolio to evaluate your teaching effectiveness:

• Title page
• Table of contents (or menu if your portfolio is electronic)
• Introduction or summary of portfolio contents
• Sections, with brief summaries of content for each section
• Most important: a summary that reflects on evaluations and how you have used them to improve your teaching effectiveness (see discussion of student evaluations, above)

Take care to present the portfolio in a neat and polished format. The point is not to dazzle the committee with an expensive and dramatic cover, but to take care to present the material in a professional way, with the goal of making it easy for the committee to read and refer to your teaching materials throughout the hiring process. Here are some presentational tips:

• Revise and edit all documents to correct mechanical errors and improve clarity.
• If you are preparing a “hard copy,” print all documents on high-quality paper, create a cover, and bind at copy shop.
• Consider adding a copyright symbol.
• Make additional copies if invited for an on-campus interview.
• Include a line on your curriculum vitae indicating that the portfolio is ”available upon request”

When Should You Create a Teaching Portfolio?

Begin creating a teaching portfolio as soon as your graduate training begins. Even before you set foot in the classroom as a Teaching Assistant or instructor, you should begin thinking about the ideas and objectives that will guide you when you do so. Reading articles and attending workshops on teaching will help you identify current issues and potential approaches. As you build your teaching experience, you should also be developing your portfolio, which you can then update, refine, and improve when you are entering the academic job market.
Be aware that some search committees may never ask for a teaching portfolio, while others will request “teaching materials” or “evidence of teaching effectiveness” at some point in the hiring process. Sending a teaching portfolio is often an excellent way to respond to the latter request. Different disciplines follow different protocols in regard to when it is acceptable to send unsolicited materials to a search committee. In general, however, it is usually not a good idea to send a portfolio unless requested. When in doubt about whether you should send a portfolio, contact the chairperson of the search committee.

How Can You Improve Your Teaching Portfolio?

Show the portfolio to faculty members and peers whose opinions you trust. Seek additional guidance from The Teaching Center. Address areas that you can improve now, as well as those you want to address in the future. The latter can provide interesting topics of conversation when you talk to search committees about your teaching, whether in formal interviews or informal discussions.

Links and References

Kaplan, Matthew. “The Teaching Portfolio.” The Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. University of Michigan. http://www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/CRLT_no11.pdf.

Rodriguez-Farrar, Hannelore B. Creating a Teaching Portfolio: A Handbook for Faculty, Teaching Assistants and Teaching Fellows. The Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning. Brown University. 2008. http://www.brown.edu/Administration/Sheridan_Center/teaching/documents/T….

Seldin, Peter. The Teaching Portfolio: A Practical Guide to Improved Performance and Promotion/Tenure Decisions. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc. 1991.

“Teaching Portfolios.” Center for Teaching. Vanderbilt University. http://www.vanderbilt.edu/cft/resources/teaching_resources/reflecting/portfolio.htm.

Vick, Julia Miller and Jennifer S. Furlong. The Academic Job Search Handbook. 4th ed. Philadelphia: U Pennsylvania P, 2008.

 

 

Ethical Life

Hegel's Philosophy of Right

Third Part: Ethical Life

§ 142

Ethical life is the Idea of freedom in that on the one hand it is the good become alive — the good endowed in self-consciousness with knowing and willing and actualised by self-conscious action — while on the other hand self-consciousness has in the ethical realm its absolute foundation and the end which actuates its effort. Thus ethical life is the concept of freedom developed into the existing world and the nature of self-consciousness.

§ 143

Since this unity of the concept of the will with its embodiment — i.e. the particular will — is knowing, consciousness of the distinction between these two moments of the Idea is present, but present in such a way that now each of these moments is in its own eyes the totality of the Idea and has that totality as its foundation and content.

§ 144

[a] The objective ethical order, which comes on the scene in place of good in the abstract, is substance made concrete by subjectivity as infinite form. Hence it posits within itself distinctions whose specific character is thereby determined by the concept, and which endow the ethical order with a stable content independently necessary and subsistent in exaltation above subjective opinion and caprice. These distinctions are absolutely valid laws and institutions.

Addition: Throughout ethical life the objective and subjective moments are alike present, but both of them are only its forms. Its substance is the good, i.e. the objective is filled with subjectivity. If we consider ethical life from the objective standpoint, we may say that in it we are ethical unselfconsciously. In this sense, Antigone proclaims that 'no one knows whence the laws come; they are everlasting', i.e. their determinate character is absolute and has its source in the nature of the thing. None the less, however, the substance of ethical life has a consciousness also, though the status of this consciousness is never higher than that of being one moment.

§ 145

It is the fact that the ethical order is the system of these specific determinations of the Idea which constitutes its rationality. Hence the ethical order is freedom or the absolute will as what is objective, a circle of necessity whose moments are the ethical powers which regulate the life of individuals. To these powers individuals are related as accidents to substance, and it is in individuals that these powers are represented, have the shape of appearance, and become actualised.

Addition: Since the laws and institutions of the ethical order make up the concept of freedom, they are the substance or universal essence of individuals, who are thus related to them as accidents only. Whether the individual exists or not is all one to the objective ethical order. It alone is permanent and is the power regulating the life of individuals. Thus the ethical order has been represented by mankind as eternal justice, as gods absolutely existent, in contrast with which the empty business of individuals is only a game of see-saw.

§ 146

[b] The substantial order, in the self-consciousness which it has thus actually attained in individuals, knows itself and so is an object of knowledge. This ethical substance and its laws and powers are on the one hand an object over against the subject, and from his point of view they are — are in the highest sense of self-subsistent being. This is an absolute authority and power infinitely more firmly established than the being of nature.

Remark: The sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, and the natural objects of all kinds by which we are surrounded, are. For consciousness they have the authority not only of mere being but also of possessing a particular nature which it accepts and to which it adjusts itself in dealing with them, using them, or in being otherwise concerned with them. The authority of ethical laws is infinitely higher, because natural objects conceal rationality under the cloak of contingency and exhibit it only in their utterly external and disconnected way.

§ 147

On the other hand, they are not something alien to the subject. On the contrary, his spirit bears witness to them as to its own essence, the essence in which he has a feeling of his selfhood, and in which he lives as in his own element which is not distinguished from himself. The subject is thus directly linked to the ethical order by a relation which is more like an identity than even the relation of faith or trust.

Remark: Faith and trust emerge along with reflection; they presuppose the power of forming ideas and making distinctions. For example, it is one thing to be a pagan, a different thing to believe in a pagan religion. This relation or rather this absence of relation, this identity in which the ethical order is the actual living soul of self-consciousness, can no doubt pass over into a relation of faith and conviction and into a relation produced by means of further reflection, i.e. into an insight due to reasoning starting perhaps from some particular purposes interests, and considerations, from fear or hope, or from historical conditions. But adequate knowledge of this identity depends on thinking in terms of the concept.

§ 148

As substantive in character, these laws and institutions are duties binding on the will of the individual, because as subjective, as inherently undetermined, or determined as particular, he distinguishes himself from them and hence stands related to them as to the substance of his own being.

Remark: The 'doctrine of duties' in moral philosophy (I mean the objective doctrine, not that which is supposed to be contained in the empty principle of moral subjectivity, because that principle determines nothing — (see § 134) is therefore comprised in the systematic development of the circle of ethical necessity which follows in this Third Part. The difference between the exposition in this book and the form of a 'doctrine of duties' lies solely in the fact that, in what follows, the specific types of ethical life turn up as necessary relationships; there the exposition ends, without being supplemented in each case by the addition that 'therefore men have a duty to conform to this institution'.

A 'doctrine of duties' which is other than a philosophical science takes its material from existing relationships and shows its connection with the moralist's personal notions or with principles and thoughts, purposes, impulses, feelings, &c., that are forthcoming everywhere; and as reasons for accepting each duty in turn, it may tack on its further consequences in their bearing on the other ethical relationships or on welfare and opinion. But an immanent and logical 'doctrine of duties' can be nothing except the serial exposition of the relationships which are necessitated by the Idea of freedom and are therefore actual in their entirety, to within the state.

§ 149

The bond of duty can appear as a restriction only on indeterminate subjectivity or abstract freedom, and on the impulses either of the natural will or of the moral will which determines its indeterminate good arbitrarily. The truth is, however, that in duty the individual finds his liberation; first, liberation from dependence on mere natural impulse and from the depression which as a particular subject he cannot escape in his moral reflections on what ought to be and what might be; secondly, liberation from the indeterminate subjectivity which, never reaching reality or the objective determinacy of action, remains self-enclosed and devoid of actuality. In duty the individual acquires his substantive freedom.

Addition: Duty is a restriction only on the self-will of subjectivity. It stands in the way only of that abstract good to which subjectivity adheres. When we say: 'We want to be free', the primary meaning of the words is simply: 'We want abstract freedom', and every institution and every organ of the state passes as a restriction on freedom of that kind. Thus duty is not a restriction on freedom, but only on freedom in the abstract, i.e. on unfreedom. Duty is the attainment of our essence, the winning of positive freedom.

§ 150

Virtue is the ethical order reflected in the individual character so far as that character is determined by its natural endowment. When virtue displays itself solely as the individual's simple conformity with the duties of the station to which he belongs, it is rectitude.

Remark: In an ethical community, it is easy to say what man must do, what are the duties he has to fulfil in order to be virtuous: he has simply to follow the well-known and explicit rules of his own situation. Rectitude is the general character which may be demanded of him by law or custom. But from the standpoint of morality, rectitude often seems to be something comparatively inferior, something beyond which still higher demands must be made on oneself and others, because the craving to be something special is not satisfied with what is absolute and universal; it finds consciousness of peculiarity only in what is exceptional.

The various facets of rectitude may equally well be called virtues, since they are also properties of the individual, although not specially of him in contrast with others. Talk about virtue, however, readily borders on empty rhetoric, because it is only about something abstract and indeterminate; and furthermore, argumentative and expository talk of the sort is addressed to the individual as to a being of caprice and subjective inclination. In an existing ethical order in which a complete system of ethical relations has been developed and actualised, virtue in the strict sense of the word is in place and actually appears only in exceptional circumstances or when one obligation clashes with another. The clash, however, must be a genuine one, because moral reflection can manufacture clashes of all sorts to suit its purpose and give itself a consciousness of being something special and having. made sacrifices. It is for this reason that the phenomenon of virtue proper is commoner when societies and communities are uncivilised, since in those circumstances ethical conditions and their actualisation are more a matter of private choice or the natural genius of an exceptional individual. For instance, it was especially to Hercules that the ancients ascribed virtue. In the states of antiquity, ethical life had not grown into this free system of an objective order self-subsistently developed, and consequently it was by the personal genius of individuals that this defect had to be made good. It follows that if a 'doctrine of virtues' is not a mere 'doctrine of duties', and if therefore it embraces the particular facet of character, the facet grounded in natural endowment, it will be a natural history of mind.

Since virtues are ethical principles applied to the particular, and since in this their subjective aspect they are something indeterminate, there turns up here for determining them the quantitative principle of more or less. The result is that consideration of them introduces their corresponding defects or vices, as in Aristotle, who defined each particular virtue as strictly a mean between an excess and a deficiency.

The content which assumes the form of duties and then virtues is the same as that which also has the form of impulses (see Remark to § 19). Impulses have the same basic content as duties and virtues, but in impulses this content still belongs to the immediate will and to instinctive feeling; it has not been developed to the point of, becoming ethical. Consequently, impulses have in common with the content of duties and virtues only the abstract object on which they are directed, an object indeterminate in itself, and so devoid of anything to discriminate them as good or evil. Or in other words, impulses, considered abstractly in their positive aspect alone, are good, while, considered abstractly in their negative aspect alone, they are evil (see § 18).

Addition: To conform to the ethical order on this or that particular occasion is hardly enough to make a man virtuous; he is virtuous only when this mode of behaviour is a fixed element in his character. Virtue is rather like ethical virtuosity, [Heroes ('ethical virtuosi') lived in uncivilised conditions (see Addition to § 93) and there was no ethical life in society as they found it; but since they introduced ethical institutions for the first time (see Remarks to §§ 167 and 203), they displayed virtue as a kind of virtuosity. Nowadays, ethical life is common to everyone and consists in conformity to the existing order, not in divergence from it.] and the reason why we speak of virtue less nowadays than formerly is that ethical living is less like the form of a particular individuals character. The French are par excellence the people who speak most of virtue, and the reason is that amongst them ethical life in the individuals is more a matter of his own idiosyncrasies or a natural mode of conduct. The Germans, on the other hand, are more thoughtful, and amongst them the same content acquires the form of universality.

§ 151

But when individuals are simply identified with the actual order, ethical life (das Sittliche) appears as their general mode of conduct, i.e. as custom (Sitte), while the habitual practice of ethical living appears as a second nature which, put in the place of the initial, purely natural will, is the soul of custom permeating it through and through, the significance and the actuality of its existence. It is mind living and present as a world, and the substance of mind thus exists now for the first time as mind.

Addition: Just as nature has its laws, and as animals, trees, and the sun fulfil their law, so custom (Sitte) is the law appropriate to free mind. Right and morality are not yet what ethics (Sitte) is, namely mind. In right, particularity is still not the particularity of the concept, but only that of the natural will. So, too, at the standpoint of morality, self-consciousness is not yet mind's consciousness of itself. At that level it is only the worth of the subject in himself that is in question, i.e. the subject who determines himself by reference to good in contrast with evil, who still has self-will as the form of his willing. Here, however, at the standpoint of ethics, the will is mind's will and it has a content which is substantive and in conformity with itself.

Education is the art of making men ethical. It begins with pupils whose life is at the instinctive level and shows them the way to a second birth, the way to change their instinctive nature into a second, intellectual, nature, and makes this intellectual level habitual to them. At this point the clash between the natural and the subjective will disappears, the subject's internal struggle dies away. To this extent, habit is part of ethical life as it is of philosophic thought also, since such thought demands that mind be trained against capricious fancies, and that these be destroyed and overcome to leave the way clear for rational thinking. It is true that a man is killed by habit, i.e. if he has once come to feel completely at home in life, if he has become mentally and physically dull, and if the clash between subjective consciousness and mental activity has disappeared; for man is active only in so far as he has not attained his end and wills to develop his potentialities and vindicate himself in struggling to attain it. When this has been fully achieved, activity and vitality are at an end, and the result - loss of interest in life - is mental or physical death.

§ 152

In this way the ethical substantial order has attained its right, and its right its validity. That is to say, the self-will of the individual has vanished together with his private conscience which had claimed independence and opposed itself to the ethical substance. For, when his character is ethical, he recognises as the end which moves him to act the universal which is itself unmoved but is disclosed in its specific determinations as rationality actualised. He knows that his own dignity and the whole stability of his particular ends are grounded in this same universal, and it is therein that he actually attains these. Subjectivity is itself the absolute form and existent actuality of the substantial order, and the distinction between subject on the one hand and substance on the other, as the object, end, and controlling power of the subject, is the same as, and has vanished directly along with, the distinction between them in form.

Remark: Subjectivity. is the ground wherein the concept of freedom is realised (see § 106). At the level of morality, subjectivity is still distinct from freedom, the concept of subjectivity; but at the level of ethical life it is the realisation of the concept in a way adequate to the concept itself.

§ 153

The right of individuals to be subjectively destined to freedom is fulfilled when they belong to an actual ethical order, because their conviction of their freedom finds its truth in such an objective order, and it is in an ethical order that they are actually in possession of their own essence or their own inner universality (see § 147).

Remark: When a father inquired about the best method of educating his son in ethical conduct, a Pythagorean replied: 'Make him a citizen of a state with good laws.' (The phrase has also been attributed to others.)

Addition: The educational experiments, advocated by Rousseau in Emile, of withdrawing children from the common life of every day and bringing them up in the country, have turned out to be futile, since no success can attend an attempt to estrange people from the laws of the world. Even if the young have to be educated in solitude, it is still useless to hope that the fragrance of the intellectual world will not ultimately permeate this solitude or that the power of the world mind is too feeble to gain the mastery of those outlying regions. It is by becoming a citizen of a good state that the individual first comes into his right.

§ 154

The right of individuals to their particular satisfaction is also contained in the ethical substantial order, since particularity is the outward appearance of the ethical order — a mode in which that order is existent.

§ 155

Hence in this identity of the universal will with the particular will, right and duty coalesce, and by being in the ethical order a man has rights in so far as he has duties, and duties in so far as he has rights. In the sphere of abstract right, I have the right and another has the corresponding duty. In the moral sphere, the right of my private judgement and will, as well as of my happiness, has not, but only ought to have, coalesced with duties and become objective.

Addition: A slave can have no duties; only a free man has them. If all rights were put on one side and all duties on the other, the whole would be dissolved, since their identity alone is the fundamental thing, and it is to this that we have here to hold fast.

§ 156

The ethical substance, as containing independent self-consciousness united with its concept, is the actual mind of a family and a nation.

Addition: Ethical life is not abstract like the good, but is intensely actual. Mind has actuality, and individuals are accidents of this actuality. Thus in dealing with ethical life, only two views are possible: either we start from the substantiality of the ethical order, or else we proceed atomistically and build on the basis of single individuals. This second point of view excludes mind because it leads only to a juxtaposition. Mind, however, is not something single, but is the unity of the single and the universal.

§ 157

The concept of this Idea has being only as mind, as something knowing itself and actual, because it is the objectification of itself, the movement running through the form of its moments. It is therefore
(A) ethical mind in its natural or immediate phase — the Family. This substantiality loses its unity, passes over into division, and into the phase of relation, i.e. into
(B) Civil Society — an association of members as self-subsistent individuals in a universality which, because of their self-subsistence, is only abstract. Their association is brought about by their needs, by the legal system — the means to security of person and property — and by an external organisation for attaining their particular and common interests. This external state
(C) is brought back, to and welded into unity in the Constitution of the State which is the end and actuality of both the substantial universal order and the public life devoted thereto.

---

These notice are worth for EF 303

Ethical Standards

Introduction

The Ethical Standards for the Teaching Profession represent a vision of professional practice. At the heart of a strong and effective teaching profession is a commitment to students and their learning.
Members of the Ontario College of Teachers, in their position of trust, demonstrate responsibility in their relationships with students, parents, guardians, colleagues, educational partners, other professionals, the environment and the public.

The Purposes of the Ethical Standards for the Teaching Profession are:

• to inspire members to reflect and uphold the honour and dignity of the teaching profession
• to identify the ethical responsibilities and commitments in the teaching profession
• to guide ethical decisions and actions in the teaching profession
• to promote public trust and confidence in the teaching profession.

The Ethical Standards for the Teaching Profession are:

Care

The ethical standard of Care includes compassion, acceptance, interest and insight for developing students' potential. Members express their commitment to students' well-being and learning through positive influence, professional judgment and empathy in practice.

Respect

Intrinsic to the ethical standard of Respect are trust and fair-mindedness. Members honour human dignity, emotional wellness and cognitive development. In their professional practice, they model respect for spiritual and cultural values, social justice, confidentiality, freedom, democracy and the environment.

Trust

The ethical standard of Trust embodies fairness, openness and honesty. Members' professional relationships with students, colleagues, parents, guardians and the public are based on trust.

Integrity

Honesty, reliability and moral action are embodied in the ethical standard of Integrity. Continual reflection assists members in exercising integrity in their professional commitments and responsibilities.

Kijana aliyeugua ugonjwa wa kuzeeka aaga dunia

Kijana mmoja wa mjini Mumbai ambaye amekuwa akiugua ugonjwa usio kawaida wa jeni ambao huufanya mwili kuzeeka mara nane zaidi ya ilivyo kawaida amefariki.

Nihal Bitla mwenye umri wa miaka 15 alikuwa mwanaharakati wa India anayefanya kampeni dhidi ya ugonjwa huo kwa jina Progeria.
Bitla aligonga vichwa vya habari alipokuwa akitafuta wagonjwa wengine 60 wanaougua ugonjwa huo ili kushiriki katika yake mjini Boston.Alianzisha mtandao wa kijamii kutoa hamasa kuhusu ugonjwa huo.
Hivi karibuni alianzisha hamasa kwa jina #HatsOnProgeria,ambapo alionekana na kundi moja la wafuasi wake katika kituo cha reli cha Chhatrapati Shivaji.
Bitla alipata umaarufu baada ya kukutana na nyota wa Bollywood Aamir Khan mnamo mwezi Disemba baada ya ukurasa wake wa facebook kuzungumzia kuhusu habari yake na swala kwamba alikuwa shabiki mkubwa wa nyota huyo.
Alifariki hospitalini siku ya Jumanne kusini mwa jimbo la Telangana,ambapo alikuwa ameenda kuhudhuria sherehe za harusi.
Ripoti za vyombo habari zinasema kuwa huenda alikosa maji mwilini kutokana na joto katika eneo hilo.

Walimu wagoma, kisa mwenzao kuzabwa kofi darasani

������������

WALIMU wa shule ya msingi Kianda wameanza mgomo wa siku mbili wa kutofundisha shuleni hapo huku wakilaani kitendo cha Ofisa Elimu (Shule za Msingi) wa Halmashauri ya Wilaya ya Sumbawanga mkoani Rukwa, Peter Fusi kumshambulia na kumpiga makofi mwalimu mwenzao akiwa darasani mbele ya wanafunzi wake.

Makamu Mwalimu Mkuu wa Shule hiyo, Flora Kipesha alisema wameitisha mgomo huo wa siku mbili kupinga kitendo cha Fusi kumshambulia na kumpiga makofi mwalimu mwenzao Jacob Msengezi (25) ambaye anafundisha somo la Hisabati Darasa la Saba shuleni hapo.

“Licha ya kulaani vikali kitendo hiki cha udhalilishaji alichofanyiwa mwalimu mwenzetu na Ofisa Elimu (DEO) wetu (Peter Fusi) kumcharaza makofi mbele ya wanafunzi wake akiwa darasani ….

Ametudhalilisha sote yaani hata hamasa ya kufundisha imetoweka ….. “Sasa hatutaingia darasani kufundisha kwa siku mbili tukimshinikiza Mkurugenzi wa Mtendaji wa Halmashauri ya Wilaya ya Sumbawanga (Adam Missana) achukue hatua dhidi ya ofisa huyo wa elimu ……yaani tunadhalilishwa hivi mbele ya wanafunzi wetu wenyewe wakati kazi hii tumeisomea na tuna vyeti halali ….

Tukiwa na sifa stahiki za taaluma ya ualimu,” alieleza Kipesha. Akifafanua, alisema walimu hawataingia kufundisha kwa siku hizo mbili na watakuwa ofisini wakiandaa mitihani huku wanafunzi wakiendelea kuhudhuria shuleni hapo kama kawaida.

Naye Mwalimu Msengezi alilieleza gazeti hili kwa njia ya simu akiwa shuleni Kianda kuwa juzi Jumatano Ofisa Elimu, Fusi alitembelea shuleni hapo saa tatu asubuhi akikagua mazingira ya shule.

“Mie wakati huo nilikuwa darasani na wanafunzi wa darasa la saba nikisahihisha madaftari yao kwani tayari kipindi changu kilianza saa 2:00 na kumalizika 2:40 asubuhi … Hivyo kwa kuwa mwalimu wa somo la Kiingereza alikuwa ‘busy’ akitunga mitihani niliamua niutumie muda huo kubaki darasani humo nikisahihisha madaftari,” alieleza Msengezi Kwa upande wake, Katibu wa CWT Wilaya ya Sumbawanga Vijijini, Vicent Ndewele akizungumza na gazeti hili kwa njia ya simu alikiri kutokea kwa tukio hilo huku akisisitiza kuwa chama hicho kitatoa msimamo wake leo.☝☝☝☝☝☝☝Hawa Maafisa Huwa wanakutana Na,Walimu Wapole Tu

Settlement

Settlement

During this unit you will understand more about the built environment around you by looking at different settlements past and present and how things have changed.

Site and Settlement

The reason why sites for settlements were chosen for the earliest settlements would be different to choosing sites today. Original sites were chosen based on their natural features and advantages, nowadays sites would also be based on human factors.
There were originally seven natural factors that were taken into consideration, perhaps by a tribe leader who was looking to settle his people somewhere.
The more advantages a site had the more likely it was for the settlement to grow:

PROTECTION
Hilltop locations give good views of the enemy if you are likely to be attacked
Hilltop views also give good lookout points

WATER SUPPLY
Drinking
Cooking
Washing
Could come from a variety of sources, a river, spring or well for example
However, too much water could lead a settlement that could flood or become marshy

RIVERS
Water supply
Needs to be easy to cross either on foot at a ford or by a bridge

BUILDING MATERIALS
Wood or stone to build settlement

SHELTER
South facing slopes have more sun and therefore are warmer
North facing slopes are exposed to the cold northerly wind

SUPPLY OF WOOD
Fires
Cooking
Building material

FLAT LAND
Easy to build on
Able to grow crops
Easier for communication e.g. travelling to other towns
Nowadays, factors such as transport networks are also taken into account when deciding to locate somewhere.

Settlement Patterns
The pattern or shape of early settlements would have been influenced by the surrounding area. Three main types of settlement pattern can now be identified:

DISPERSED
Found in upland areas
Buildings are spread out
Many dispersed settlements comprise of farms

LINEAR
Buildings are built in a line
This could be along a river valley, road or railway

NUCLEATED
Buildings are grouped together
Early settlers grouped together for protection
Found in flat, lowland areas
Settlement growth
Many people in Britain live in a town or city, normally due to work constraints. These large settlements grew very quickly in the nineteenth century because of industrialisation and many people moving to the towns and cities for work. Towns and cities in Britain are no longer growing in size but in some countries, cities are becoming very large. This is because many people believe the large settlements have many benefits to living there and that moving there will improve their quality of life. Many of the people who believe this live in rural farming areas in poor countries where their quality of life is very low.
     Potential benefits include:

Houses and flats to buy or rent
More jobs
Higher paid jobs
More reliable food and water supply
Variety of shops
Being closer to work and shops means less time and money spent on travelling
Better access to services, such as schools and hospitals
Entertainment such as cinemas, clubs and sport
However, many of the benefits term out not to be accessible to the people who move and many people already living in towns and cities see them as having many problems. These problems include:

Traffic can cause congestion, accidents, noise and air pollution
Old roads are narrow and cannot cope with lorries and buses
Old houses and factories look rundown and ugly
Waste land where old houses and factories are demolished
Crime, vandalism and litter
Land is expensive so housing tends to be too
Not necessarily enough jobs to go round and people need to be skilled to get high paid jobs

Land use
Towns originally had just one main function, e.g. a port or market. Nowadays, towns and cities have various different functions. The main functions are commerce or shops and offices, residential, industrial and open space. Each of these functions tends to be in a specific area of a city so a land use pattern emerges. It must be noted, that no two towns are identical but they may be similar, because of this a simple model was drawn called an urban model. The simple urban model has 4 circles radiating from the centre in rings:

ZONE A
Centre of the town
Also known as the Central Business District(CBD)
First place to built in the town
Few houses
Area of shops, businesses and offices
Most expensive area to build in - which is why many CBD's have buildings that are tall rather than wide

ZONE B
Originally area of factories and workers homes built in the nineteenth century
Small terraced houses due to expensive land. Houses have no gardens or garages.
Called the inner city area
Today, many of the factories are closed down and the oldest houses have been modernised or replaced
Areas of waste land and run down factories and housing

ZONE C
Nearly all houses built in the 1920's and 1930's (inter war)
Called the inner suburbs
Houes are semi-detached, with a garden and garage.

ZONE D
Large, modern housing estates with large gardens and garages
Council estates
Called the outer suburbs
Small, modern industries and shops have set up here due to the cheap land

Areas of open space
Land use can change over time in towns particularly where areas close to the CBD are modernised and areas of open space in the outer suburbs have large shopping centres built on them.

Settlement Hierarchy
A settlement hierarchy orders the largest to the smallest settlements in a triangle shape. There are more smaller settlements than large, hence the triangle shape. From the top down would be megalopolis, city, town, village and hamlet. There are three methods to test the hierarchy which are:

The larger the settlement the further it is away from another large settlement
The larger the settlement the fewer there are of them
The larger the settlement the more services it will have (post office, churches and shops etc)

Shopping
Types of shopping areas can also be arranged into a hierarchy depending on the goods they sell. Places at the bottom of the pyramid sell low order goods and are small. A low order good is also known as a convenience good and is something which may be needed on a daily basis (e.g. milk). At the top of the pyramid are places that sell high order goods and tend to be large. A high order good is also known as a specialist good and is something that is needed less often (e.g. furniture).

Most shops are found in the CBD of a city becuase this is the most accessible area, however some shops are now moving to out of town sites to create large retail parks (e.g. Bluewater Shopping Centre). The out of town sites tend to be located on the edge of cities and are easily accessible to the public.
The advantage of this, is that people can go to one place for their shopping in an area that is easy to reach and not as congested as the CBD. However, the main disadvantage is for independent retailers who cannot afford the high rent of out of town centres and have to remain in the CBD where less people now visit. The final impact could be that the independent retailers are forced to close down.

Homework Help:
Reasons for siting a settlement - think of two reasons that would influence the original site for a settlement.

Locating a settlement - for each of the four diagrams think of one reason why the settlement is there.
Should Aylsham Market Place be pedestrianised? - based on the work done in class and the primary data collected in Aylsham you have to answer the question posed with evidence

Advantages and disadvantages of nucleated and dispersed rural settlement

Nucleated rural settlement

Advantages

More interaction with people.

Safer as there are more people.

Can share ideas on how to solve a problem.

Can share the cost of tools and machinery.

Disadvantages

Not enough privacy.

There may be arguments as you have to agree on how to solve a problem.

Have to share the profits.

Cannot use tools or machinery when you want to.

Dispersed rural settlement

Advantages

More privacy.

Can make your own decisions.

All the profit is your own.

Better use of machinery and tools.

Disadvantages

Not enough interaction with people.

Not as safe as it is far from other people.

Have to pay for all costs by yourself.

Difficult to share ideas when you have a problem.

GE 341:ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the merits and demerits of nucleated (or dispersed) settlements for agricultural development in Tanzania.

Note
1:work in groups of not more than five people
2: The work should be on three pages only
3:The late submission is on 17/05/2016

Powered by
           
www.mkombozijembe.blogspot. com

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY

                                ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY

LL 201
. This course discusses the elastic nature of English lexicon as well as the interaction between morphology and other levels of linguistic analysis. It further examines at length the contrast existing between English and Bantu morphological systems.
This course intends that by the end of the course, students should be able to:
1.1 Analyze various word building blocks (component parts of words) and identify the principles which determine the way in which such blocks are combined together to form the whole.
1.2 Examine and describe various ways of word formation.
1.3 Examine the way morphology interacts with other levels of linguistic analysis: syntax, phonology and semantics.
1.4 Draw a sharp contrast between English and Bantu morphological system


COURSE CONTENTS
The course has got five modules/topics to be discussed. page
Topic
1: TOPIC 1 Words and Word Structure ……………...........…………………………………………..….3
1.1 Words: Lexeme, Word Form, Grammatical word, Suppletion …………..…..3
1.2 Morphemes: Roots, Affixes, Stems and Bases………………………………………….....…5
1.3 Representing Word structure: Hyphen and Tree Structure Approaches……................................................………….....…..5
1.4 Morphs: Portmanteau morphs, Empty Morphs/Empty Formatives/Stem Extenders……............................................................…7
1.5 Allomorphs. ...................……………………………………………………………………………..……8


2 TOPIC 2: Productivity/Creativity in Word Formation …………………….…..10
2.1 Elasticity of the English Lexicon ……………………....……………………………………...10
2.2 Word formation Processes: Rule-governed Creativity VS Rule-bending Creativity….....…10
2.3 Constraints on Creativity/Productivity………………………………………...…………...…12


3 TOPIC 3: Lexical Morphology ………………………………………………………..........………..15
3.1 Lexical phonology and Morphology Model: Emergence, Tenets and criticism……………15
3.2 Lexical strata. ………………………………………………………………………..............….....…17
3.3 Derivation and inflection in Lexical Morphology …………………………...…..18
3.4 Components of the lexical morphology model: lexical and post-lexical Rules……...............................................................…….21
3.5 Interaction of Morphological phenomena ………………………………......………….………22.
3.5.1 Interaction between Irregular past tense formation and Regular Past Tense Formation rules
3.5.2 Interaction between the Negative prefix un- and stratum 2 affixes
3.5.3 Interaction between the Negative prefix un- and stratum 1 affixes
3.5.4 Interaction between the Compounding Rule and Regular Inflection Rule
3.5.5 Interaction between the Stratum 2 Derivational Affixes: A Case of Bleeding and Feeding Rule
3.6 The Relationship between stratum Ordering and Productivity………………………..……20
3.7 The Relationship between Stratum Ordering and Word Formation Processes .21


4 TOPIC 4: Morphology-Syntax Interface……………….............………………………………………25
4.1 Inflection-Derivation Dichotomy…………………................…………………………………………25
4.1.1 Obligatoriness
4.1.2 Productivity
4.1.3 Syntax Motivation
4.1.4 Relevance and Generality
4.1.5 The Inflectional Parsimony Principle.
4.2 The Lexicalist Hypothesis ………………………………………………..................…………….…….26
4.3 Verbal inflection Categories


5 TOPIC 5: The Parallels and Congruence between English Morphology and Bantu Morphology ……………………………………………………………………………....................................………27
5.1 Nominal Morphology …………………………………………........................…………………………….27
5.1.1 Nominalization in English Language …………..................……………………………………28.
5.1.2 Nominalization in Bantu Languages …………...................……………………………………29.
5.2 Verbal Morphology ………………………………………………….........................………………………29.
5.3 The Role of causative, Applicative, Passive, Reciprocal, and Stative to the structure of verbs
5.4 Pronominalization: Subject and Object Marking. ………….......…………………………..……34


MORPHOLOGY


Is the study of how words are formed out of smaller meaningful units traditionally called Morphemes. Morphemes are regarded as word building blocks. There are two basic questions raised about Morphology perspective.
1. What are the component parts that build up the word structure?
2. What are the principles that determine the relative arrangement of such component parts so as to form the whole?
Morphology is therefore about the syntax of a word.


Morphology has been defined differently by various scholars.
• O’grady et al (1997) define morphology as the study of analysis of word structure. Also as the system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation. That means the study of word structure.
• Katamba (1993, 2006) defines morphology as the study of internal structure of words.
• Stewart & Vaillet (2001) define morphology as the study of the constructions of words out of morphemes.
• For Syal and Jindal (2007:20) morphology studies the patterns of formation of words by the combination of sounds into minimal distinctive units of meaning called morphemes.
Generally Morphology is all about syntax of words. It is focused on the relative arrangement of morphemes in a word plus the principles and rule which determine such an arrangement
.

TOPIC ONE
WORDS AND WORD STRUCTURE
1.WORD
Is the smallest free form found in a language. Free form refers to an element that can occur in isolation and whose position in relation to the neighbouring elements is not entirely fixed. Why not fixed?
Sentences usually have got different status. E.g. negative, interrogative, positive (affirmative)
They are happy. The verb and the subject have exchanged the positions.
Are they happy?
Basically there are two types of words.


a). SIMPLE WORDS
These are made up of a single morpheme which cannot be segmented further into smaller meaningful units. I.e. simple words are not decomposable e.g. tree, car, house, go, etc


b). COMPLEX WORDS
These are made up of two or more morphemes which can be segmented further into smaller meaningful units. E.g. inter-nation-al-ly. = internationally
Katamba (1993, 2006) says that it is not an easy task to define a word. For him a word can be viewed as:

i). A LEXEME
A lexeme is an abstract vocabulary item listed in a dictionary. Why abstract? Because it is not in context.
A lexeme exists in different forms which do not share the same syntactic context in a syntactic structure. That means these forms are mutually exclusive. i.e. where one occurs the other cannot occur. (Lexemes are written in capital letters)

Eg JUMP- jump
Jumps
Jumping word-forms
Jumped

TALL= tall, taller, tallest
BOY= boy, boys
Technically, word forms are different physical realization/representation/manifestation of a particular lexeme.


There are two classes of Word-Forms:
1. The first consists of words which are phonetically similar and have got a common root morpheme. E.g. PLAY=play, playing, plays, played
2. The second consists of the words that are phonetically dissimilar and do not share the same root morpheme. E.g. GOOD=good- better- best, BAD=bad- worse- worst.

The situation where the word forms do not have a common root morpheme and are phonetically dissimilar is called SUPPLETION. In suppletion a total word is affected.
But, whether the word forms are phonetically similar or not they have one feature in common. i.e. they share the same meaning. E.g. if the lexeme is an adjective, the word-forms may be adjectives but at different degrees.

Suppletion VS Internal Change in a Word
• INTERNAL CHANGE
Is the process in which a non-morphemic segment (phoneme) substitutes another non-morphemic segment in a particular context. Suppletion does not just take place haphazardly. Internal Change is normally manifested in irregular past tense formation and irregular plural formation in English Language. For Stewart and Vaillet Internal Change is a word formation process wherein a word changes internally to indicate grammatical information (e.g. the English plurals and past tense)


Eg.
Take /teɪk/ -took/tʊk/ man /mӕn/- men /men/
See /si:/ - saw /sɔ:/ foot /fʊt/- feet. /fi:t/
Further confusion
Seek /si:k/ sought /sɔ:t/
Think /ϴɪŋk/ thought / ϴɔ:t/
In the above examples two segments have been affected. This is called an Extreme Form of Internal Change. O’grady (1997:142) calls it Partial Suppletion.


ii) A GRAMMATICAL WORD.
Is a representation of a lexeme that is associated with certain morpho-syntactic properties (i.e. partly morphological and partly syntactic properties) such as noun, verb, adjective, tense, gender, number etc. Katamba (2006:19)
A Word Form realizes lexemes. A single word form may represent different grammatical words.

Mwita cut a tree yesterday.
Mwita cut trees everyday
CUT------Cut- verb +past tense
Cut –verb + present tense

The two are treated as different grammatical words realized by different word-forms.
Besides the two grammatical words realized by a word-form cut above, there is a third one which you can observe in Mwita has a cut on his finger. This grammatical word is cut {noun, singular} it belongs to a separate lexeme CUT, the noun.


2. WORD STRUCTURE
• Representation of a word structure.
There are two basic approaches of representing the structure of a word.

(a) HYPHENIC-APPROACH
It shows the morphemic boundaries in a word by using a hyphen.
Dis-establish-ment-al-ism =disestablishmentalism
Inter-nation-al-ity = internationality

(b) TREE STRUCTURE APPROACH
It shows the details of the words internal organization.
E.g. mismanagement
Before applying a tree structure ask yourself about
• A word class
• Constituent parts
• The core part (lexical)
• Word class of the core part
E.g. mismanagement


MORPHEME
• Is the smallest indivisible unit in a word. It is a word building block. It cannot be segmented further into smaller meaningful units. A morpheme can be a word. Example free morphemes like door, car, house, etc.
• Morpheme therefore is the smallest indivisible unit of semantic content or grammatical functions with which words are made up. By definition a morpheme cannot be decomposed into smaller units which are either meaningful by themselves or mark a grammatical function like singular or plural number in the noun. Katamba (2006:20).


• Additionally, he defines Morpheme as the smallest difference in the shape of a word that correlates with the smallest difference in word or sentence meaning or grammatical structure. (2006:24)
• Morpheme is a smallest linguistic unit that can have a meaning or grammatical function. Stewart & Vaillet (2001)

Traditionally, there are two types of Morphemes
1. Free Morphemes
2. Bound Morphemes

FREE MORPHEMES
These have a tendency of standing alone and they are of two categories.

a. Lexical Morphemes.
These do carry most of the semantic content of the utterance. E.g. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs.

b. Functional Morphemes.
These do signal grammatical information in a sentence. They also perform a logical function. E.g. Articles, Conjunctions, Pronouns, Demonstratives, Prepositions etc

BOUND MORPHEMES
Bound morphemes –in nature –cannot stand alone. They must be attached to root, stem or bases. In most cases bound morphemes are affixes (prefixes, infixes, and suffixes)
There are affixes that can change the word class of a particular word together with its meaning. These are termed as DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES/MORPHEMES
Eg work+er = worker
Teach +er = teacher
V N

There are affixes that do not change the word class, but they simply encode different grammatical functions like tense, number etc. These are called INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES/AFFIXES
Tall+er = Taller
Adj adj.
Katamba (1993, 2006) has come with a complementary view of categorizing morphemes. According to him Morphemes must be in 4 categories.
(a) Roots (b) Affixes (c) Stems (d) Bases


ROOTS
A root is a core part of a word, the word which must be lexical in nature. A root must exist independent of affixes. A root cannot be segmented further into smaller meaningful units. A root must always be a lexical category. In most cases the root must be a word.

A root therefore is an irreducible core part of a word with absolutely nothing else attached to it. A traditional thinking is that all roots are free morphemes but currently all roots are not necessarily free morphemes, there are also bound roots.
Bound roots are foreign in origin and most of them are Latinate. These cannot stand alone unless they are attached to other elements.
E.g.
-mit = submit, transmit, commit
-ceive = receive, perceive, conceive
Pred- = predator, predatory, predation
Sed- = sedentary., sedent, sediment


AFFIXES
An affix is a morpheme that only occurs when attached to some other morpheme or morphemes such as roots or stems or bases. Katamba (2006:44)
Prefix-is an affix attached before the root, base or stem like re-, un- in-, as in, re-write, un-kind, in-accurate.


Suffix –is an affix attached after the a root (or stem or base) like –ly, -er, -ist, -ing, -s, etc. as in kind-ly, teach-er, typ-ist, etc

Infixes – infixes are not common in English language. They are common in infixing languages like Semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew. In Semitic languages the major word formation process is infixation. A morpheme or an element is inserted in the root itself. Infixation still happens in contemporary English though rarely. E.g.
Kalamazoo (place name) Kalama-goddamn-zoo
Instantiate {verb} in-fuckin-stantiate
Kangaroo – kanga-bloody-roo
Refer to Katamba (2006: Prosodic Morphology)

STEMS
A stem is a part of a word that exists before any inflectional affix. It is a right candidate with a possibility of receiving inflectional affixes. Stems can be best captured within the field of Inflectional Morphology. E.g. teacher-teachers, play-playing.

BASE
A base is any unit to which all kinds of affixes can be added. i.e. Bases can accept derivational and inflectional Morphemes. That’s why it is said that all roots are bases but all bases are not roots.
The reasons for such a claim are:
• A root by nature can accept either inflectional or derivational morphemes.
• Some bases can be segmented further into smaller meaningful units (unlike roots)
• Examples
o Careful = -root, -stem, +base
o Read = +root, +stem, +base
o Worker = -root, +stem, +base
o Dog = +root, +stem, +base
o Faith= +root +/-stem, +base
Katamba’s categorization of morphemes is subject to criticism. If a morpheme cannot be segmented further, how comes that a stem and a base are morphemes.


MORPH
 Morphemes are usually abstract linguistic entities. When we speak we do not hear morphemes but morphs. A Morph is the actual form used to realize a morpheme. A morph is therefore a physical realization/representation/manifestation of a particular morpheme. In speech a morpheme is realized as a morph.

 There is usually no one to one correspondence between a morpheme and morph. Sometimes there is one to one correspondence but in other scenarios there is no.
Why no correspondence?
 A single morpheme may simultaneously be associated with two or more morphs. E.g. a regular past tense morpheme –ed.
As in parked -2 morphs /pɑ:k/t/
Saved -2 morphs /seɪv/d/
Planted -2 morphs /plɑ:nt/ɪd/
Therefore -ed has three morphs /t/, /d/, /ɪd/

From the scenario above it can be concluded that there is no one to one correspondence between morphs and morphemes. The morphs above do not appear haphazardly. There are basically three types of Morphs.
 Portmanteau Morphs
 Empty Morphs
 Zero Morphs

• PORTMANTEAU MORPHS
Is a representation of a morpheme which is simultaneously associated with multiple grammatical elements (morpheme) that means a single morph realizes multiple morphemes. These are available in fusional languages.
E.g. /s/ - s {regular present tense morpheme}
/s/ -s {regular plural morpheme}

In this example “Mwita talks too much” the –s ending in English verbs (e.g. talk-s) signals three morphemes simultaneously, namely 3rd person, present tense, and singular number.
Morphemes are to morphs what lexemes are to word-forms. Morphemes and lexemes are the abstract entities found in the lexicon while morphs and word-forms are the physical entities found in speech or writing.

• EMPTY MORPHS/EMPTY FORMATIVES/STEM EXTENDERS
Refers to a surplus word building element which does not realize any morpheme. It is normally inserted at the end of the root just for convenience, so that affixes can be affixed without any problems.

Eg Problem= problem-at-ic {-at- is a morph that is semantically empty since it does not realize any morpheme.
Factual = fact-u-al { -u- is an empty morph semantically, and not a morpheme. Thus a number of morphs can exceed a number of morphemes in a word.

• ZERO MORPH
It does not correspond to any overt morpheme
E.g. Bhoke cut trees yesterday
Bhoke cut trees everyday
The word cut has no a morpheme realizing the past tense in the first sentence thus it is a zero morph. It is common in irregular past tense.

ALLOMORPH
An allomorph can be viewed as:
 A phonetic variant of a morpheme.
 Different ways of pronouncing the same morpheme in particular phonetic contexts.
 Different phonetic realization of a particular morpheme.
The multiple representations must be in complementary distribution. Why?
 They must represent the same grammatical meaning or serve the same grammatical function.

 They must never occur in the same phonetic context. The occurrence of one must preempt/block/prevent the occurrence of the other. Allomorphs are mutually exclusive since they cannot occur in the same context.
 They are phonetically conditioned. The final segment in a word determines the kind of allomorph to be realized.

A set of morphs is allomorphs of a particular morpheme. Thus there is a close relationship between Morpheme, Morphs and Allomorphs.

Study the following allomorphs and the conditions leading to their occurrence.
-ed -s -in
 /t/ it occurs after verbs ending in any voiceless consonant other than /t/. e.g. practiced, parked.
 /d/ it occurs after verbs ending in voiced sounds other than /d/ cleaned, received.
 /ɪd/ it occurs when the verb ends in /d/ or /t/. e.g. painted, mended.
 /s/ after voiceless consonants {p,t,k,f,ϴ}. other than sibilants E.g. jumps, cups, laughs.
 /z/ after voiced segments other than sibilants and all vowels. E.g. reads, shoes, dogs
 /ɪz/ after sibilants {if a noun ends in an alveolar or alveolar-palatal sibilant. Like /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ./
E.g. fishes, classes  /ɪn/ before alveolar consonants like /t,d,z,s,n,/ and before vowels eg intolerable, inactive, indecent.
 /ɪm/ before labial consonants {p,b,f,m/ as in impossible, immovable, inflammable.
 /ɪŋ/ before velar consonants /k/ also spelt with ‘c’ and /g/
E.g. incomplete, ingratitude



TOPIC TWO
PRODUCTIVITY/CREATIVITY IN WORD FORMATION
All natural languages are elastic in their lexicon(s), in a sense that they have got the indefinite ability of expanding. i.e. they are expansive in nature. New words are being formed /created daily and added to the lexicons. The lexicons are continuously receiving new members (new words).

NB: Not all new words that are created can be added to the lexicon. Words which can meet certain conditions/qualifications are the ones which should be added to the lexicon.

LEXICON- refers to a list of words in a language. The list is not finite/limited set. Words which enter the system are formed through two major approaches.
a) Rule-Governed Creativity
b) Rule-Bending Creativity.

RULE-GOVERNED CREATIVITY
Words are formed on the basis of rules and principles internalized by speakers during language acquisition process.
All the word formation processes like Compounding, affixation, reduplication, conversion, etc fall under Rule-governed creativity.

RULE-BENDING CREATIVITY.
• Words are not formed on the basis of rules and principles. Speakers do extend the stock of words idiomatically. (i.e. by producing idioms) including slangs. Slangs are just sporadic/ intermittent/seasonal words which are created to cater for certain conditions. They are usually confined to a group of people and are within a particular locality.

• Young people, middle-aged, and old people may have their own slangs. With time slangs can be used across speech community and can be accepted as normal words within a particular language.
• When this situation occurs they can be formalized/documented and can be used officially. This is a good approach/tool of generating many new words into the language.

PRODUCTIVITY
Is the capacity of all human languages to use the ‘finite means’ to produce an indefinite number of words and utterances. ‘Finite means’ refers to word formation processes. The few word formation processes we have can generate as many words and utterances as possible.

So, productivity can also be viewed in terms of its generality. i.e. there are some word formation processes which are more productive than others. Thus productivity is just a matter of degree and not a dichotomy (separation mark). So some are more productive while others are less productive.

But Why?
They have the ability of generating more new members into the system. More productive word formation processes are also predictable and general.

PREDICTABILITY
With predictability, it means, one can easily identify the morpheme which can be attached to as many words as possible. E.g. –ly can be used to adverbialize many English words to get new words.
Other word formation processes are less productive, less predictable and less regular.

E.g. –ive and –al} are less predictable.
Productivity is subject to the dimension of time. i.e. A word formation process which is productive at a particular point in time might be less productive at another point in time and the other way around.

UMLAUT
During the Pre-Old English period umlaut was a regular phonological/ process of forming plural in most of the Germanic dialects. It was a productive, predictable, and regular process during the time. The plural forming morpheme was quite regular and predictable. As time went on, it turned out to be unproductive, unpredictable and irregular morphological process of forming plurals in few nouns in English Language.

To form plural in these few words (nouns) there must be vowel mutation. (Vowel alteration)
E.g. tooth=teeth
Foot=feet
Man=men
Goose=geese. Etc
Umlaut is the major source of irregular inflection in English language.

SEMI-PRODUCTIVITY
This is a special category used to cover idiosyncratic affixes that inexplicably fail to attach to apparently eligible forms. (Mathew 1974 in Katamba 2006). Furthermore where such affixes are used the meaning of the resulting word may be unpredictable.

For example the suffix –ant which turns a verb base into an agentive nominal {and which is similar in meaning to –er,} is very fussy. It is very capricious (unpredictable/changing suddenly) in the selection of bases to which it attaches and in meaning of the resulting word after suffixing it.

Historically, the suffix –ant comes from a Latin present participle ending –antem/-entem. Hence it attaches to Latinate bases only. Germanic bases are ineligible. Take a look at the following:

Latinate bases Germanic bases
Communicant *buildant
Defendant *shoutant
Dependant *writ(e)ant
Inhabitant *teachant
Servant
Applicant
Accountant etc

Even then, the attachment to Latinate bases is unpredictable. There are many bases of Latinate (or French) origin that fail to combine with –ant. Look here:
destroy {from Old French destruire.} We can’t say *destroyant
adapt {from Old French adapter}. We can’t say *adaptant

Therefore it can be seen that there is no a neat three way opposition between productive, semi-productive and unproductive processes. We can then say that some processes are relatively more productive than others.

BLOCKING
• Productivity in word formation is not free from obstacles or constraints/problems. Not all words that can be formed can be accepted into the system. Even if they appear to meet some rules they cannot be accepted. They do not have Well-Formedness Conditions (WFCs)

• These words with no right Well-Formedness Conditions are usually blocked.
Blocking is the process of inhibiting/frustrating the application of a word formation process whose conditions for application appear to be met. E.g. if you want to form a word whose meaning is similar to the already existing word, that word must be blocked. Katamba says identical synonyms are not accepted in most of the natural languages. E.g. thief (someone who steals) we cannot have *stealer. This must be blocked since thief already exists.

An asterisk (*) is put to mean that the word is ill-formed.
-ish/-ful –(adjectivizing suffixes)
-ity/-ness –(nominalizing suffixes)
-ive/-al -(Adjectivizing suffixes)

Look
*childishful –( it is ill-formed) Why?
Morphemes which perform the same function should never co-occur in the same context. The application of one must block/preempt/prevent the application of the other.
Happiness- (well-formed)
*happinessity (ill-formed)

Blocking can be manifested in four different ways

(A) PHONOLOGICALLY
That mean the phonological properties of a particular word may prevent/block the application of a certain word formation process. Look at the following cases.

Adj adverb
Kind+ly kindly
Happy+ly happily
Serious+ly seriousily
Silly+ly *sillily
Friendly+ly *fiendlily
Sisterly+ly *sisterily

-ly should not be added to adjectives ending in –ly one may add some words as “in a friendly manner” to make adverbs.
• Verbs with inchoative meaning can be formed by suffixing –en to adjective base provided it meets the following conditions.
o The base (adjective) must be Monosyllabic
o The morphemes/adjectives must end in an obstruent (i.e. stops, fricative, affricates)

o If it ends in an obstruent it may be optionally preceded by a sonorant. {Nasals, approximants and vowels.}
o Look at the following two cases
a. black-en
tight-en
sharp-en these are well-formed since they end in obstruent
soft-en
hard-en
b.*dry-en
*green-en these are ill-formed since they do not end in obstruent.
*dimm-en
*blue-en
{For moredetails refer to Katamba 2006:76}

(B) MORPHOLOGICALLY
Morphological properties of a base may prevent the application of certain morphological rules.
E.g. Native bases do co-occur with native affixes.
E.g. teach+er= teacher (native)
See+er = seer (native)
Foreign bases do co-occur with foreign affixes.
Apply + ant = applicant (foreign)
Communicate + ant= communicant (foreign)

If we are forming nouns for people, why do we use different morphemes?
-er is a native morpheme while –ant is a foreign morpheme from French Language. So if someone says *Buildant it will be ill-formed because build is a native base while –ant is a foreign affix, thus they cannot co-occur.

However we cannot dichotomize the two as foreign bases for foreign affixes and native bases for native affixes. With time foreign bases may be nativized and begin taking native affixes.

E.g. –hood is a native affix, while priest is a foreign base, but we normally say priesthood and the word is well-formed. The base priest has been nativized to accept native affixes. When this occurs we normally say that there is LEXICAL INDIGENIZATION
Now we have parenthood, statehood, nationhood

VELAR SOFTENING RULE.
Another case is Velar Softening Rule which changes /k/ (usually spelt with the letter c) to [s]. This is essentially restricted to words of Latin and French origin:
E.g. critic = criticism
Semantic = semanticist
Fanatic = fanaticism

Katamba comments that Velar Softening only affects Romance roots. That means, if a thinker called Isaac developed a new philosophy we might call it Isaacism [aɪzǝkɪzm]. But we could not call it [aɪzǝsɪzm] since Isaac is not a Romance root.

(C). SEMANTICALLY
Semantics may block the application of certain morphological rule. Every word that is formed must be meaningful in that particular natural language.

Look at the following cases.
Case 1: The negative prefix un- cannot be attached to adjectives having negative meaning. It is attached to adjectives with positive meaning. {In most cases}

(a) Compare (b)
*unill unwell
*unhated unloved
*unsad unhappy
*unfoolish unwise
*undirty unclean
*unpessimistic unoptimistic
When un- is attached to the negative members in (a) the resulting word is usually ill-formed.

Case 2: this is seen from the way compounds are formed from adjectives + past participle (v-ed)
(a) Compare (b)
Blue-eyed man two-carred man (a man with 2 cars)
Long-tailed dog beautiful-housed family (a family with a beautiful house)
Four-legged animals
Red-haired girl
White-painted house

The adjective derived from (v-ed) are permitted only when the root to which –ed is added is inalienably possessed (i.e. is an integral part of the whole). The adjectives in (a) are permitted because for example hair is an integral part of the body. Similarly, legs to animals etc. but those in (b) are ruled out since a car is not an integral part of the man’s body.

(D). AETHETICALLY
Some words may be well-formed in a particular natural language yet they may not be accepted in that particular speech community because of being considered ugly or because of having negative contention according to the cultural values of that particular speech community. For example words related to sensitive body parts are not normally adopted/put into regular use by a particular society.

The following words were coined but not accepted since they were considered ugly.
The word stagflation to refer to the combination of economic stagnation and high level of inflation around 1970s. Other words are talkathon, swimathon, knitathon, etc. by the analogy to marathon. This is misanalysis of –athon as a suffix which means {undertaking a strenuous prolonged activity} in Greek –athon was not a morpheme.




TOPIC THREE
LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY
Refers to the structure of lexical items {in a layman perspective} e.g. verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs. In the lexicon of any natural language there are two rules {for the sake of this topic lexicon is synonymous to base.}

The rules are
1. Morphological Rules LEXICAL RULES
2. Phonological rules.
These lexical rules are hierarchically organized in blocks called strata/layers/levels. Morphological Rules are responsible for building the structure of words. After building such words they have to submit them to the phonological rules which are responsible for determining the way they should be pronounced.

In operation therefore, Morphological Rules precede Phonological Rules. The output of both rules should be an acceptable word according to the canonical patterns (standard rules) of that particular language.


LEXICAL PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGICAL MODEL
LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY MODEL {MML}
This Model came into existence as a critique to most of the American Structuralist Models.

Why a critique?
The American Structuralist Models placed a greater emphasis on Morpheme as a fundamental tool for Morphological analysis. i.e. there is always a close relationship between Morphological Representation and Phonological Representation or there is one to one correspondence between Morphological Representation{morpheme} and Phonological Representation {morph}.

However, these people did not consider the existence of different linguistic typologies (different languages with different morphologies).
TYPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUGAES IN THE WORLD

Basically, the languages of the world can be typologically classified into 5 groups.
A} Agglutinative/Agglutinating Languages
In these languages there is usually one-to-one correspondence between Morphological representation and Phonological representation. In these languages a word is made up of more than one (several) morphemes.

Stewart and Vaillet (2001) define Agglutinating language as a type of language in which the relationship between words in a sentence is indicated primarily by bound morphemes. Morphemes are joined together loosely so that it is easy to determine where the boundaries between morphemes are. E.g. Kiswahili and majority of Bantu languages.
Tulimpenda= ‘we loved him’
Tu=’We’, li=’past’, m=’him’, pend=’love’, -a=’verbal suffix’.
Another characteristic feature of agglutinating language is that each bound morpheme carries {ordinarily} only one meaning. E.g. ninasoma. Ni=’I’, na= ‘present’, -a= ‘verbal suffix.

B} Analytic/ Isolating Languages
In these languages a morpheme stands as word in isolation. i.e. a single morpheme is a word in itself. These words never have inflectional affixes. The semantic and grammatical information which are often expressed in other languages (like English) through the use of suffixes are thus expressed in analytic languages by the use of separate words. Eg Mandarin Chinese
[wɔ mǝn tan tçin]
I plural play piano = ‘we are playing the piano’
[wɔ mǝn tan tçin lǝ]
I plural play piano past = ‘we played the piano’

C) Inflecting/synthetic/fusional Languages
In these languages words usually consist of several morphemes but there is seldom one to one correspondence between morphs and morpheme. Instead a single morph is likely to represent several morphemes simultaneously. For example Latin, Sanskrit, Greek and in some instances Kiswahili and English can fall into this category.
E.g. a Greenlandic word illuminiippuq
Illu- mi- niip- puq
House his be-in 3rd p sing-indicative =‘he is in his {own} house.

D) Incorporating/Polysynthetic Languages
In these languages a single word stands as a sentence. For Stewart & Vaillet these are languages in which several stem forms may be combined (along with affixes) into a single word. Such a word is usually a verb with its associated nouns “built-in” or incorporated, so that the verb alone express what seems to us as the equivalent of a sentence.
E.g. Kiswahili word anawapikia
A - na- wa- pik- i- a
He/she pres cont them cook appl verbal suffix
‘He/she is cooking for them.’

E) Infixing Languages
In these languages there is completely no correspondence between a morpheme and a Morph. E.g. Arabic and Hebrew. Words are formed by inserting a morpheme into a consonantal root.

E.g. in Egyptian Arabic the consonantal root ktb which means ‘write’ provides the word-forms below after inserting vowel in the lexeme KTB.
Kitab=book
Katab = he wrote
Katib= writer.

From the above typological classification it can be concluded that there is no one to one correspondence between morpheme and morph. Lexical Morphology Model emerged so as to handle these inadequacies. The proponents of Lexical Morphology model believed that a word is a fundamental tool for any Morphological analysis.

i.e. Analysis of Natural Languages must be done on the basis of words rather than morphemes. They also said there is a symbiotic relationship between morphological rules and Phonological Rules.

Why a symbiotic Relationship between the two? Because the rules are cyclic Why cyclic?
Because the product of Morphological Rules must be submitted to the Phonological Rules since Phonological rules are responsible for determining the way the word should be pronounced.

Why does this Model use a Word?
a) In most languages there is usually no one to one correspondence between Morphs and Morphemes.
b) At each layer of derivation the output is usually a word.
c) In other word-formation processes the inputs are usually words e.g. Compounding

Lexical Morphology Model (LMM) is similar to the following Models
A) Traditional Word-Based Model
B) Pre-Structuralist Approaches to Morphology Model
C) The Word and Paradigm Morphology Model

All the above models have something in common. The commonality emanates from the fact that they all use words in analyzing various morphemes.
Tenets of the Model (claims/assumptions)
a) The lexicon is hierarchically organized in strata which are usually defined on the basis of the properties of the affixes.
b) Affixes belong to one stratum. Each stratum is uniquely associated with a particular set of affixes which share both Morphological and Phonological Rules.
c) All Lexical Morphologists want a minimum number of strata but they don’t exactly agree what the minimum number should be.
d) There is an intimate/close relationship between Morphological Rules and Phonological Rules.
e) Morpheme ordering reflects the hierarchical ordering of stratum.

LEXICAL STRATA
Lexical Strata are hierarchical layers in the lexicon of any natural language, containing both morphological rules which collectively are responsible for the formation of acceptable word. Strata are normally defined on the basis of the properties of affixes, because usually affixes have got different status. That’s why we have affixes that can change the segmental morphology of the base. When such affixes are attached to the base they can cause segmental mutation.

SEGMENTAL MUTATION
Refers to the modification of some segments of the base that change from one phonological shape to another phonological shape. Affixes which cause segmental mutation in the base can also cause stress shift from one syllable to another syllable.

Another set of affixes are those which do not affect phonological shape of a base. Affixes which normally cause segmental mutation of the base are normally closer to the base/root; the same applies to those which change stress.
Root/base –xxx - xxx
S1affix S2 affix
Stratum 1 affixes cause segmental mutation of the base. Stratum 2 affixes normally do not cause segmental mutation of the base. Hence we have two types of strata. Each stratum has got its own Morphological rule and Phonological rule. The output at each layer of derivation must be an acceptable word because of morphological and phonological rules.

• NON-NEUTRAL AFFIXES
Stratum 1 affixes are usually called non-neutral affixes in other books ‘primary affixes’. E.g. –al,
-ic, -ive, -ian, -ity, etc.


Non-neutral affixes can be categorized into two groups.
a) Pre-accenting affixes.
When these are added to the base two things may happen
i. Stress shift to penultimate syllable.
ii. Segmental mutation. E.g. magnet /'mӕgnǝt/ magnetic /mӕg'netɪk/
/ǝ/ has undergone changes also stress shifted to penultimate syllable.

b) Auto-stressed affixes.(suffixes)
When added to the base two things may happen
i. Stress may shift to the suffix itself
ii. Stress may shift to the syllable containing that particular suffix.
E.g. detain /dɪ'teɪn/ detainee /di:teɪ'ni:/
Absent /'ӕbsǝnt/ absentee /ӕbsǝn'ti:/
Pay /peɪ/ payee /peɪ'i:/

• NEUTRAL AFFIXES
They belong to stratum 2 and do not cause segmental mutation in the base. Examples are –ly, -ness,
-less, plus all regular inflection affixes.
'Home= 'homeless
'Quick = 'quickly {NOTE-transcribe the words first}
'Power = 'powerless
'Happy = 'happiness.

There is neither stress shift nor phonological changes. Affixes which do not cause segmental mutation are normally regular, while those which cause segmental are normally irregular.
i.e regular derivation belongs to stratum 2 and irregular derivation belongs to stratum 1. Hence, we have regular and irregular inflection.

GERMINATION
In most cases germination is caused by secondary affixes (neutral affixes by some of them).
Most of these neutral affixes are Greek or Latinate in origin.
By definition germination is doubling of consonants in pronunciation. It is manifested in pronunciation and not orthographically.

How do we get germination?
a) It is when a final consonant in a base is adjacent to the first consonant in the affixes and they are identical.
E.g. thin+ness
/ϴɪn+nǝs/ = ϴɪnnǝs/

b) When the last consonant of the affix (prefix) is adjacent to the first consonant of the base and both are identical.
E.g. sub+base /sʌbbeɪs/ un+named= /ʌnneɪmd/ sub+branch /sʌbbrӕnʧ/
Un-known, un-necessary, un-numbered

Secondary affixes normally do not cause germination because they are Germanic in origin. In English germination is not a common feature. The few we have are caused by the words which are not English in origin. Germination is a common feature in Semitic languages especially Arabic and Hebrew.

c) Similarly, compounds may also result in germinates as in ;
Cattail/kӕtteɪl/
Bookkeeper /bʊkki:pǝ/
Penknife /pennaɪf/

DERIVATION IN LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY
Derivation in Lexical Morphology takes place in two strata –stratum 1and 2.
E.g. crime /kraɪm/ = criminal /krɪmɪnl/ {it takes place at stratum 1}

INFLECTION IN LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY
It takes place at both stratum {stratum1 and 2}
Regular inflection takes place at stratum 2 where as irregular inflections take place at stratum 1.
E.g. man= /mӕn/ men= /men/
Write /raɪt/ wrote /rǝʊt/ segmental mutation

In English there are three {3} source of irregular inflection.
i) ABLAUT
Is the change in the root vowel which indicates the change in grammatical function. Ablaut is clearly manifested in irregular past tense formation. It is featured by both regularity and irregularity.

• Vowel mutation in small class of irregular verbs seems to be consistent.
Present tense past tense
Write /raɪt/ wrote /rǝʊt/
Ride /raɪd/ rode /rǝʊd/
Drive /draɪv drove/drǝʊv/
Strive /straɪv/ strove /strǝʊv/
Rise /raɪz/ rose /rǝʊz/
Dive daɪv/ dove /dǝʊv/

• Vowel mutation in many irregular verbs is not consistent
See /si:/ saw /sɔ:/
Buy /baɪ/ bought /bɔ:t/
Give /gɪv/ gave /geɪv/

ii) UMLAUT
Is a change in the vowel which indicates change in grammatical function. It is manifested in irregular plural formation. Umlaut is fronting the vowel if the next syllable contains a front vowel. Umlaut was a regular phonological process during pre-Old English. It used two plurals in Germanic dialects.
Nominative singular Nominative plural
fōt ‘foot’ fōtiz ‘feet’
gōs ‘goose’ gōsiz ‘geese’ note ō=long /o:/ Katamba (2006:102)

Currently umlaut is not productive, it applies just to a small part of irregular nouns like man=men, foot=feet, tooth=teeth.
Umlaut is no longer a regular phonological process. It has become an irregular morphological process of forming plurals.

iii) LOAN WORDS
They are also good source of irregular inflection in English language. In showing plural they normally show a certain kind of systematicity
E.g. singular plural
Addendum addenda
Stratum strata
Erratum errata
Medium media
Datum data

The process of regularizing the system is called ANALOGY. i.e. overgeneralization of the rule e.g. Forming plurals by using –s in every noun like medias, datas, etc
The second set of loanwords
Singular plural
Syllabus syllabi
Cactus cacti
Fungus fungi.

TRISYLLABIC LAXING
This is a rule which changes a tense vowel (a long vowel or a diphthong) in a stem to a lax vowel (short vowel). This is a phonological mark left behind by the GVS. It is triggered by stratum 1 affixes.

Essentially it applies when the target vowel is pushed into the 3rd or ante-penultimate syllable as a result of attaching certain non-neutral affixes {stratum1} to a base.
Examine the following data.
 [eɪ] [ӕ]
Sane /seɪn/ sanity /sӕnǝti:/
Vain /veɪn/ vanity/vӕnǝti:/
 [i:] [e]
Extreme/ɪk’stri:m/ extremity /ɪk’stremǝti/
Serene /sǝ’ri:n/ serenity/sǝ’renǝti/
 [aɪ] [ɪ]
Apply /ǝ’plaɪ/ application/ӕplɪ’keɪʃn/
Devine /dɪ’vaɪn/ divinity /dɪ’vɪnǝti/

STRATUM ORDERING AND PRODUCTIVITY
There is a notion that the hierarchical arrangement of strata in the lexicon reflects the degree of generality.
Degree of Generality.

Word formation processes which are general are also productive, predictable and regular. {What does productive mean?} They are able to generate more members into the system. The word formation processes of this kind are always regular. If a word formation process is regular it must have regular affixes.
Regular Affixes can be

A) Regular Derivational Affixes –less, -ness, -ly, etc
These are productive in a sense that they can form many new words.
Regular Derivation takes place at stratum 2 in the lexicon and thus this word formation process that takes place at stratum 2 is productive.
Root + S1 +S2
Happ[y]ness, quickly, careless.
These affixes do not trigger any change in the segmental phonology of the base. Thus they belong to stratum 2.

B) Regular Inflectional Affixes.
Like regular derivational affixes they generate more members to the lexicon. E.g. regular past tense formation morpheme –ed, and regular plural formation morpheme –s
E.g. played, enjoyed, saved, boys, classes, studies
 Other word formation processes are irregular, unpredictable and unproductive and do yield few members into the lexicon. These word formation processes have irregular affixes which are in two.

C) Irregular Derivational Affixes
D) Irregular Inflectional Affixes { Irregular Inflectional Affixes are not overt}
E.g. read (pres) read [past] foot (sing) feet (pl)
Irregular Inflectional and Irregular Derivation take place at stratum 1 in the lexicon.
ROOT + IRD/IRI + RD/RI
{Less productive} {More productive}

Irregular Derivation and Irregular Inflection cause segmental mutation in the base/root.
Crime /kraɪm/ criminal /krɪmɪnl/
Foot/fʊt/ feet /fi:t/
Tooth /tu:ϴ/ teeth/ti:ϴ/
The strata are hierarchical and fixed, thus even their degree of generality is hierarchical.
E.g. grammatic-al- ly
1 2
-al is at stratum 1 and is less productive.
-ly is at stratum 2 and is more productive. {They are thus in a hierarchy}.
The relationship between Stratum Ordering and Word Formation Processes
If the strata are hierarchically arranged even the Word Formation Processes are hierarchically arranged. The hierarchical ordering of strata reflects the degree of generality of Word Formation Processes. Stratum 1 contains the more idiosyncratic word-formation processes while stratum 2 contains the more general ones.

The more general a word formation process is, the more productive it will be assumed to be.

COMPARTMENTS OF LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY MODEL
There are two compartments
i) Lexical Rules Compartment
ii) Post-Lexical Rules Compartment.

Lexical Rules Compartment operates at the lexical {word} level so as to produce acceptable word in the language. In contrast, Post –Lexical Rules Compartment operates beyond lexical level. It cuts across the boundary of word level. It usually operates at phrasal level. Usually in a language Lexical Rules Compartment must precede Post-Lexical Rules Compartment. E.g. Morphological Rules and Phonological Rules must produce an acceptable word before it can be used in a phrase or sentence.

Differences between the Two Compartments.
1) Lexical Rules are confined to the lexical level {word level} while Post Lexical Rules operate beyond the lexical level. They normally operate at phrasal level so as to reduce the articulatory energy {speech simplification}. It operates across word boundaries to words after being grouped into phrases. This is called Phrasal Phonology
Eg last time /las taɪm/
Lost property /lɒs prɒpəti/

2) Lexical Rules are cyclic i.e. the output of morphological rules must be submitted to the phonological rules while Post lexical rules are not cyclic i.e. there is no linkage between syntactic rules and morphological rules. When forming a phrase or clause we only use syntactic rules which determine the relative arrangement of one element with another. The product/output of syntactic rules should not be submitted to phonological rules. Why is that so? Because pronunciation ends in lexical level.

3) Lexical rules are structure preserving i.e. the output at each stratum must be acceptable words according to the canonical patterns of the language. i.e. each stratum has got its own lexical rules and affixes, while Post lexical rules are not structure preserving i.e. some products/outputs may not conform to the canonical patterns of the language. Consider this case

4) Lexical rules are not automatic i.e. we cannot easily predict which affixes may co-occur with which bases. i.e. stratum 1 affixes are normally not predictable.
Eg produce/product-ive
Crime/crimin-al
Long / leng-th
Wide/ wid-th

Lexical rules are therefore lexically conditioned because a lexical item chooses which affix to co-occur with, while post-lexical rules are automatic i.e. they apply whenever the necessary phonetic conditions allow. Thus they are not lexically conditioned.

INTERATION BETWEEN MORPHOLOICAL PHENOMENA
{1} Interaction between Irregular Past Tense Formation Processes [IPTFP] and Regular Past Tense Formation Processes. [RPTFP]
There is no mutual interaction between the two. IPTFP cannot co-occur with RPTFP. The co-occurrence may lead to the formation of an ill-formed word.

IPTFP, RPTFP
S1 S2
If IPTFP has already taken place at stratum 1, it must block/prevent/preempt its counterpart RPTFP
Eg bring=brought and not brought-*ed
S1 S2
Tell = told not told-*ed
S1 S2
See = saw not saw-*ed
2} The Interaction between the Negative Prefix un- and Stratum 2 Affixes
There is the contention that the –un must co-occur with adjective bases containing stratum 2 affixes. E.g. unhelpful, unhappiness, unnamed {the final –ful, -ness, and -ed belong to stratum2}. It must follow then that, un- belongs to stratum 2.
However there are other scenarios where un- can co-occur with stratum 1 affixes. E.g. unproductive, ungrammatical, unreliability etc

Thus un- belongs to both strata in the lexicon. Lexical Morphology Model holds that the affix must belong to one stratum only, but the above cases show that it can belong to two strata. Thus we say un- partly co-occur with stratum 1 and partly stratum 2.

3} Interaction between Negative Prefix in- and Stratum 1 affixes
The argument is that, the negative prefix in- must co-occur with bases containing stratum 1 affixes. E.g. impossibility /ɪn/- being realized as ɪm co-occurs with –ity.- stratum 1. But in other instances it can be false as in, incorrectly, improperly.

Thus in- can also co-occur with stratum 2 affixes thus it belongs to two strata in the lexicon.
In other cases like these, it occurs with stratum 1 affixes only.
*imboyish, *inkinkly, *inchildish
In- belongs to stratum 1 while –ish and –ly belong to stratum 2 thus cannot co-occur.

4} Interaction between Stratum 2 Regular Derivational Affixes.
(A) Bleeding Rule (B) Feeding Rule
BLEEDING RULE
It prohibits the co-occurrence of two or more elements which perform the same grammatical function. The occurrence of one must preempt the occurrence of the other.
*powerfulless
*happinessity

Both –ful and –less are performing the same adjectivizing grammatical function of deriving adjectives from nouns. In that case, the two cannot co-occur in the same context. The suffixation of one must block the suffixation on the other.
In the second example both –ness and –ity perform the same nominalizing grammatical function and hence cannot co-occur in the same context. The suffixation of one must block the suffixation of the other.

FEEDING RULE
It creates an input in order for the other (the rule which is being fed) to operate effectively.

Homeless, Careful, powerless, cheerful-Adjectivizing Rule.
Home-less-ness Carefulness, powerfulness, cheerfulness. – Nominalizing Rule.
The Nominalizing Rule cannot operate unless Adjectivizing Rule has already operated. For that matter the Adjectivizing Rule is feeding the Nominalizing Rule. Hence the Nominalizing Rule is the rule which being fed.

The word ‘*homeness’ is ill-formed since the input is missing i.e. the Feeding Rule is missing to allow the nominalizing suffix to be attached freely.
The suffix –ness attaches to adjective bases to form abstract nouns while –less and –ful attach to noun to form adjective. These subcategorisation requirements dictate that –less or –ful must be added first to a noun, turning it into an adjective, before –ness can be suffixed.

Home-less-ness, not *home-ness-less, power-less-ness not *power-ness-less

5} Interaction between Compounding and Regular Inflection
Compounding takes place at Stratum 2 in the lexicon. Regular Inflection takes place at stratum 2. In essence Compounding must precede regular inflection.
Bookshop=bookshops
*booksshop
Tax collector = tax collectors
*taxes collector

However the rule does not operate all the way. It can be criticized.
E.g. doctors in charge, passersby.

In the above example Regular Inflection has preceded compounding. The argument can be criticized it is not always that compounding must precede Regular inflection.
“In response to Feeding Rule the Compounding Rule feed the Regular Inflection Rule and the vice versa.

Some Principles in the Formation of Plurals in Compound Words.
a. Pluralize the principal word in that Compound. Murthy(2010)
E.g. mother-in-law = mothers in law (the principal word is mother)
Paper clip=paper clips (the principal word is clip)
Governor General= governors General
Grants in aid, passersby, booksellers etc

‘New York Public Writers Guide’ puts it this way “the most significant word –generally the noun- takes the plural form. The significant word may be at the beginning, middle or the end of the term.

E.g. Attorneys at law, Bills of fare, chiefs of staff, notaries public, Assistant Attorneys General . Harper& Collins (1994:416)
b. When there is no obvious principle word add -s/-es to the end of the compound
E.g. forget-me-nots, pack two toothbrushes
c. When the compound word is in the form of a container (ful) e.g. bucketful, cupful, handful, plateful etc an –s is added at the end to form plural.
E.g. spoonfuls, cupfuls, handfuls etc
d. For hyphenated compounds, the pluralizing –s is usually attached to the element that is actually being pluralized.
Daughters-in-law
Half-moons
Mayors-elect

‘The Chicago Manual of Style’ comments that “the hyphenated and open compounds are regularly made plural by the addition of the plural inflection to the element that is subject to change in number” and gives examples like
Fathers-in-Law
Doctors of Philosophy , Courts martial


TOPIC FOUR
MORPHOLOGY-SYNTAX INTERFACE
{Interaction between Morphology and Syntax}
The idea is to see whether these are separate domains in the language. This can be seen by using Inflection-Derivation Dichotomy.

INFLECTION –DERIVATION DICHOTOMY
The traditional understanding is that inflection can be separated from derivation. But it is not quite easy to dichotomize between the two, although some scholars have tried to dichotomize the two on the following criteria.

a). OBLIGATORINESS
This criterion was put forward by Greenberg (1954). He said that somewhere in a sentence, the choice of an inflectional affix is syntactically obligatory. i.e. in order to have a well-formed sentence, the choice of inflectional affixes is obligatory.
E.g.*I saw three bird.
This sentence is ill-formed because ‘three’ is plural and bird is singular, thus a syntactic rule has been violated. Thus we must affix an obligatory plural inflection –s.
On the other hand he said the choice of derivational affixes is not obligatory. According to him the difference between Derivation and Inflection was clear. That is, derivational affixes are not obligatory while inflectional affixes are obligatory.

But it is not always true because even derivational affix may be obligatory.
E.g. *The teach is teaching
*He answered the question awkward
This takes us to the point that even the choice of derivational affixes in a sentence is syntactically obligatory. The suffixation of –er in the first sentence is not optional.
In the second sentence the suffixation of –ly is not optional. The syntax of the sentence requires that we must have –ly at the end. = awkwardly

b). PRODUCTIVITY/GENERALITY
The contention is that productivity/generality can easily dichotomize inflection from derivation. According to these scholars, inflection processes are regular, predictable, general and productive, whereas Derivational processes are irregular, unpredictable unproductive, and less general.

However, that criterion cannot be used to dichotomize the two. Derivational process can be either regular or irregular. Regular derivational processes are productive and general while irregular inflectional processes like ablaut and umlaut are less productive.

c). SYNTACTIC MOTIVATION
It is always taken for granted that the morpheme –ed is always inflectional affix, but Matthew (1974) came with a different perspective pertaining to the criterion above. He used two examples.
1. A crowded room
2. A well-heated room


1. A crowded room – crowded is an adjective as it pre-modifies the noun. Matthew calls it a participial adjective as it has –ed. In that case –ed is a derivational affix as it has driven an adjective from a noun. According to him –ed can be either derivational affix depending on the context.
2. A well-heated room- Matthew says it is an inflection affix. This shows we cannot dichotomize the two on the basis of -ed.

d). CHANGE OF WORD CATEGORY/ CLASS
The primary understanding is that inflection does not change the word category it rather encodes different grammatical functions like number, tense and aspect.
On the other hand Derivation does change the word category as well as meaning. This understanding has been criticized by Matthew that inflection can also change the word class. However he admits that this occurs in rare instances. For that matter the criterion to a large extent can serve as a basis of dichotomizing the two.

e). LEXICALIST HYPOTHESIS (Word-forms)
In inflectional morphology we have got lexemic paradigms, which never perform the same function and for that matter they are mutually exclusive –where one occurs the other cannot occur.
E.g. see-seen-saw-seeing.
In derivational Morphology we don’t have lexemic paradigms. This can serve as the basis of dichotomizing the two.

f). THE INFLECTIONAL PARSIMONY PRINCIPLE (IPP)
It states that two inflections cannot be functionally identical unless they are in complimentary distribution. In other words two inflections cannot perform the same grammatical function unless they are in complimentary distribution.
E.g. The allomorphs of –ed can perform the same grammatical function since they are in complimentary distribution.
But{ –ing, -ed, -s} cannot perform the same grammatical function, but different phonetic manifestation/realization, of morphemes can perform the same grammatical function.

LEXICALIST HYPOTHESIS (LH)
The hypothesis claims that the principles which regulate the internal structure of words are significantly different from the principles which regulate/govern the sentence structure.
i.e. Morphological principles differ significantly from Syntactic principle.
This makes us to believe that Morphology and Syntax are independent domains of a Language.







TOPIC FIVE
THE PARALLELS AND CONGRUENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY AND BANTU MORPHOLOGY
NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY
A}. NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY IN BANTU.
The structure of nouns in Bantu is more or less similar to the structure of nouns in English language. However, some differences may be noticed. Nouns in Bantu are classified on the basis of their morpho-syntactic classes. These classes are also identified on the basis of prefixes. For that matter there are noun class prefixes.
The prefixes in Bantu normally show singular and plural. However, these prefixes are preceded by pre-prefixes {augment}. In Kiswahili for instance they occur in Classes.
1. Mu- mutu = {the high back vowel is deleted when it occurs between consonants thus we have mtu.} Mu- is singular
2. Wa- watu= wa- is plural
{In other Bantu languages that prefix may be preceded by a pre-prefix.}
E.g. o-mu-ntu {sing.} a-bha-ntu {pl}

3. Mu- this is specifically for trees, rivers, mountains etc
4. Mi- e.g. muti (mti) sing. =miti (pl),
In bantu o-mo-te (sing) e-me-te (pl)
Muto(mto) sing. = Mito (pl)

5. Ji- jicho ji- is a prefix and cho a stem
6. Ma- macho
These are special for body parts.
In Bantu iliso (sing.) amaiso (pl), okobhoko {sing.} Amabhoko {pl}

7. Ki- this denotes inanimate or things.
8. Vi-
E.g. kiti- ki- is a prefix, ti is a stem
Viti – vi- = prefix, ti=stem

9. N- e.g. ngoma
10. N- ngoma
These are for animates and inanimates
E.g. in Bantu (Zinza) ente = cow (sing.)
ente (pl)

11. U- To denote inanimate.
U+embe [wembe]
U+araka [waraka]
When two vowels are in proximity with each other in Bantu, and if one of the vowels is a high back vowel, in phonetic form, the high back vowel must undergo gliding into a bilabial approximant segment.
Then /u+embe/=[wembe]the former is termed as a deep structure or phonological structure. It is called deep structure because it has not yet undergone any phonological process. The latter is called phonetic structure/surface structure since it has already undergone the phonetic process/gliding.

12. Ka-{sing.} these show diminutives (reduction in terms of size.)
13. Tu- (pl)
E.g. katoto [sing] = tutoto [pl]
Kazee [sing] = tuzee [pl]

14. U- This normally shows abstract nouns.
E.g. uzuri, utukufu, ubora, utukutu etc

15. Ku- this shows infinitives.
E.g. kuimba, kulima, kusali, kuomba etc

Qn. Establish a noun class prefixes in any African language of your own.

Prefixation in Bantu Languages differ significantly from Prefixation in English language. Prefixation in Bantu shows number whether in singular or plural. In English Prefixation does not show number, it rather alters the meaning of the word.
All the morphemes in both languages occupy the initial position in the stem.
In Bantu where there are pre-prefixes {augments} Prefixation occurs in the second position in the word. Some Bantu languages may not be having augments thus the position of prefixes is similar to the position of prefixes in English language.

B}. NOMINALIZATION IN BANTU LANGUAGES
Nominalization may take place on the basis of the following variables.
i). Derivation
Nouns are derived from verbs, using the following morphemes
Example 1. –i-
E.g. pika [mpish-i]
Cheka [mchesh-i] the voiceless velar plosive /k/ has become alveolar palate fricative /ʃ/.this process is called palatalization.
Palatalization
The process in which a non-palatal segment acquires palatal features or becomes a palatal segment. This is manifested in pronunciation.

jenga [mjenz-i] the voiced velar plosive /g/ has changed to voiced alveolar fricative /z/. This process is called fricativization or spirantization or frication.
Fricativization
This is the process in which a non-fricative segment changes into fricative. Penda [mpenzi]
Example 2. –e-
Pinda [upind-e], pamba [mpamb-e]

Example 3. –o-
Piga [mapig-o], cheza[mchez-o], panga [mpang-o], ziba [kizib-o], andika [mwandik-o]
Example 4. –ku- {realized by to-infinitive}
Cheza [ku-cheza], imba [ku-imba], omba [ku-omba]
Example 5. –ji-
Imba [mwimba-ji], sema [msema-ji] omba [ mwomba-ji]
Example 6. -a-
Shitaki [mashtak-a],

Qn. Show how nouns are derived from verbs in your language. Compare that structure with Swahili structure and see whether the structure is the same. Then work out the nominalizing morphemes.
ii). Compounding
This occurs especially by combining two nouns stems. E.g. in Swahili mwananchi, mtu mzima, katibu kata, bata mzinga etc

C} NOMINALIZATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
In English nominalization may be in the following variables
i) Derivation
Deriving nouns from adjectives.
E.g. national- nationalism, homeless-homelessness, national-nationality
Happy-happiness
Deriving nouns from verbs.
Head=head-{zero-derivation}, send =sender, apply=applicant, teach=teacher
ii) Compounding
Book+shop= bookshop, sun+light= sunlight, honey+moon= honeymoon
iii) Back formation
National= nation, productive=product, famous=fame, beautiful=beauty
iv) Blending
International+police=Interpol, motor+hotel=motel, breakfast+lunch=brunch


Qn. What are the differences and similarities between nominalization in Bantu Languages and Nominalization in English language?


VERB MORPHOLOGY
VERBAL MORPHOLOGY IN BANTU
Syntactic derivation leads to morphological derivation. Syntactic derivation means the process in which the arguments of the verb may either increase or decrease.
Arguments refer to the obligatory elements that must co-occur with the verb.

There are two extremes under syntactic derivation.
i. TRANSITIVIZATION
ii. DETRANSITIVIZATION


i). TRANSITIVIZATION
This is the process which generates an additional/extra NP (Noun Phrase) in a syntactic construction. Under transitivization there are operations that add NP. These are called transitivizers or argument increasers. These are further divided into two categories.
 Applicative
 causative

a). APPLICATIVE
These show that the state/action described is for the benefit of someone else.
E.g. Piga=pig-i-a, lima=lim-i-a, cheza=chez-e-a, weka=wek-e-a
[-i-] shows that there is a new noun phrase. i.e. pig-i-a for whom?
Alipiga mpira alimpigia mpira
A - li - m pig - i - a mpira
SM pst OM kick appl BVS ball



VALENCY is the ability of the verb to accommodate a certain number of arguments (obligatory elements). E.g. drink must co-occur with two arguments.
i.e Mwita will drink some water.

[-e-] jenga= atajenga nyumba a-ta-m-jeng-e-a nyumba
A -ta - m -jeng - e - a nyumba
SM ft OM build appl. BVS house
“She/he will build a house for him/her”

There are 3 NPs. The –e- has generated additional NP –m- [OM]
There are two applicative morphemes [-i- and –e-]. The hierarchy of the vowels gives the –i- to become a morpheme and –e- to be its variant. The two however do not come by chance there must be some conditioning environments.
 If the root vowel is [a,i,u] the applicative morpheme must be –i-
 If the root vowel is [o or e] the applicative morpheme becomes –e-.
i.e. the root vowel must condition the suffix vowel. The process in which the root vowel conditions the suffix vowel is called Vowel Harmony
In Kikurya these morpheme are realized as –ir- and its variant –er-
akamötemera a - ka - mö - tem - er- a
sm pst om beat appl Bvs
‘He/she beat for somebody else’

aramöbhinira a- ra- mö- bhin -ir -a
sm imperf om play appl Bvs
‘He/she is playing for somebody’
In Kichagga
nalemremia na - le - m - rem - i - a
Sm pst om dig app Bvs
‘He/she is digging for somebody’


b) CAUSATIVE
This means to cause or make somebody, or to cause something to become something different. Causative is an argument increaser/valency increaser or transtivizer in general. Causative is realized by the morpheme –ish-and its variant –esh-.
These morphemes may be realized differently in different Bantu languages. Cheza= atacheza
A -ta -chez- a
SM ft play BVS
“He/she will play” {why inverted commas? To show that it is an approximated meaning-not the exact meaning}

CAUSATIVIZATION is the process of generating a morpheme which is called causative morpheme. This process must be morphologically marked on the verbs when we do –causativization. It is causative morpheme which modifies the structure of the verb.
A - ta - m - chez - esh - a
SM ft OM play caus BVS
“He/she will make him play”

The causative morpheme has modified the structure of the verb.
Why a causative is an argument increaser?
It has generated another argument –m- after insertion of the causative –esh-.
Alipita a-li-pit-a
A - li - m - pit -ish - a
SM pst OM pass caus BVS
“He/she made him/her pass.

In Kurya- araraghira {anakula}
A -ra - mo- raghir - iy - a
SM pres OM eat caus. BVS
“He/she is making him/her eat”
In Kurya it is realied by -iy-
Aramöraghiriya = a - ra - mö - raghir – iy – a
sm imprf om feed app Bvs
‘He/she is feeding someone’

Aramurimiya = a – ra – mu – rim – iy - a
sm imperf om dig app Bvs
‘He/she is making someone dig’

ii). DETRANSTIVIZATION
This is the process of reducing/decreasing the number of arguments. The process of reducing/decreasing the valency of the verb. This process involves:
a. Passive
b. Reciprocal
c. Stative
All these are called detranstivizers, argument decreasers or valency decreasers


a). PASSIVE
This is represented by the following proto-Bantu morphemes.

*u- /w/
*bh /bw/ phonetic realizations

bh

β {symbolically it is represented that way. –a voiced bilabial fricative)
The process of changing from bilabial plosive to bilabial fricative is called fricativization.
E.g. Clara alisukuma gari
A - li- sukum- a
sm pst push Bvs
Passivization= gari lilisukumwa
Li- li -sukum - w -a
Om pst push pass Bvs
Passivization has generated the passive morpheme {-w-} which has reduced the number of arguments. If we say ‘gari lilisukumwa {na Clara}’ this is a by-phrase and optional. It is therefore not considered.
Passivization. A manipulative process which makes active sentences into passive sentences. Taylor (1995:206) in Maki Sudo
In Kikurya
Example.1 Bhoke araiheka ibhyakӧrya {Bhoke anapika chakula}
Ibhyakörya bhiraihekwa = bhi – ra – ihek -w - a
sm imperf cook pass. Bvs
‘The food is being cooked’

Example 2 Chacha ararema omӧghӧndo{Chacha analima shamba}
Omoghondo ghöraremwa= ghö – ra – rem – w - a
sm imperf cultivate pass. Bvs
‘The farm is being cultivated’
b). RECIPROCAL
It is represented by ‘each other’ construction.
E.g. Juma beat Asha and Asha beat Juma.
Reciprocalization reduces one argument in the following sentence.
Juma and Asha beat each other

{After reciprocalization one argument is reduced since Juma and Asha functions as a Subject and each other refers back to the Subject}
In Bantu reciprocalization is represented by –an- and –angan-
Juma alimpiga Asha, Asha alimpiga Juma
Juma na Asha walipigana.
Wa - li pig - an - a
Sm pst beat recip Bvs
‘They beat each other’
In subi = bha-ka- tel- angan-a
Sm pst beat recip Bvs
In Kikurya
Example 1
Mwita akatema Bhoke= (Mwita beat Bhoke)
Bhoke akatema Mwita =(Bhoke beat Mwita)
Bhoke na Mwita bha- ka- tem- an- a
S sm ps beat recip Bvs
‘Mwita and Bhoke beat each other’
Example.2
Marwa akateta Ghati = (Marwa married Ghati)
Ghati akatetwa na Marwa =(Ghati married Marwa)
Marwa na Ghati Bha- ka- tet- an - a
S sm pst marry recip Bvs
‘Marwa and Ghati married each other’
c). STATIVE
This shows that the subject is capable of undergoing or likely to undergo the action. {x-able}
E.g. cultivatable, beatable, writable, etc. Stative is realized by the morphemes –ik- and its variant/allomorph –ek- as in.
Honesta anapika chakula {two arguments}
a-na-pika-a
After stativization one argument is reduced.
Chakula kinapikika
Ki - na - pik – ik - a
Sm pres cook stat. Bvs
Stativization has generated the Stative morpheme –ik- which has reduced/deceased the number of arguments.
In Kikurya
Example 1
Chacha ararema omoghondo (Chacha is cultivating the farm)
Omoghondo gho – ra – rem – ek - a
S sm imperf cultivate stat. Bvs
‘The farm is cultivatable’
Example 2
Mumura araandeka inyarubha ( Mumura is writing a letter)
Inyarubha e - ra – andek – ek - a
S sm imperf write stat. Bvs
‘The letter is writable’
Example 3
Joni akaheta (ko)enchera (John passed on the road)
Enchera e – ka – het – ek - a
S sm pst pass stat. Bvs
‘The road was passable’
Transitivizers and detranstivizers are together called Morpho-lexical Operations
Morpho-lexical operations do generate Morpho-lexical morphemes. In other readings morpho-lexical operations are termed as syntactic operations.

How many morpho-lexical morphemes may co-occur with a single verb? And in which order?
Is the order fixed of variable? E.g. wa-na-keme-an-a.
Verbal Saturation Point.
Refers to the upper limit of the verb in accommodating morpho-lexical morphemes. i.e 1,2,3,4 morphemes etc. The order of occurrence means which one comes before the other? If the order is fixed then they are in a hierarchy. E.g. Root+caus+appl.
In kurya language up to three (3) morpho-lexical morphemes may co-occur as shown below
Kiswahili =Wa-na-chez-esh-e-an-a
Kikurya
Example When applicative, reciprocal, and causative co-occur, the order must be
Root-Appl-Recop-Caus
1 2 3
Bharahoyeraniya {wanachezesheana}
bha - ra - hoy - er - an - iy - a
sm imperf play app recip caus. Bvs
‘They are making some people play for each other’
OBJECT AND SUBJECT MARKING IN BANTU
In Bantu objects are usually marked to the left of the verb and they are in a defined order. The order is usually hierarchical. These objects may either be animate or inanimate.
If animate and inanimate objects co-occur in the verb, the animate object must be closer to the verb and inanimate object must be in the periphery of the verb.
E.g. alimpa {mtoto}chakula
Alimpa chakula { mtoto is removed, as it must be represented by a certain morpheme in the verb}
a-li-m-p-a
In Kurya the order with which objects are marked onto the verb is;
One object: a - ka - mö - h - a.
Sm pst om give Bvs
‘He/she gave him/her’

Two objects: a – ka - chi – mö – h – a
Sm pst Om1 om2 give Bsv
‘He/she gave him/her some money’

Three objects: a – ka – chi – mö – n – h - er - a
Sm pst om1 om2 om3 give appl Bvs
‘He/she gave him/her some money for me’

The order of both animate and inanimate objects in relation to the verb in Kurya language
When both animate and inanimate objects co-occur in the verb, the animate object is closer to the root than its inanimate counterpart which is in the periphery of the root.
In the example below bhi- stands for food {inanimate} and mu- stands for him/her {animate}
Akaiheka ibhiakorya{alipika chakula}=akabhimuihekera
a- ka -bhi – mu ihek- er - a
sm pst om1 om2 cook appl. Bvs
‘He/she cooked him/her some food’




The verb saturation level.
In kurya up to three (3) objects can be appended/cliticized onto the verb as in the example below;
Also see above
akasabha {he/she asked for something for me}=akakemonsabhira
a - ka - ke - mo - n - sabh - ir - a
sm pst om1 om2 om3 ask for appl Bvs

'He/she asked him/her for something for me’

PRONOMINALIZATION
This is the process of representing nouns/ NPs with some affixes or morphemes, which are realized differently across Bantu languages. Under pronominalization we have;
a. Pronominal object marker
b. Pronominal subject marker.
Mtoto has been pronominalized by an object marker –m- {alimpa}
In Swahili we can’t mark 2 objects on the verb but in other bantu languages it is quite possible as this example from Kurya and Subi illustrates
In kurya a – ka- ke – mo- h- a
In subi a - ka- bhi –m - h - a
Sm pt om1 om2 give Bvs
‘He/she gave it to him/her’
The two object markers are in a hierarchy and cannot exchange the position

Asha alimpa John pesa kwa niaba yangu.
*alizimunipea a - li - zi - mu - ni – p - e - a
Sm pst Om1 om2 om3 give appl Bvs

In other languages it is possible. In Bantu languages the verbal saturation point is four Object Markers. E.g. Kinyarwanda.


-----------------THE END OF THE COURSE---------------------------------
------------------------------------
------------------
-------







REFLECTION QUESTIONS (FROM UE PASTPAPERS AND SEMINAR QUESTION)
1. Account for the emergence of the Lexical Morphology Model and discuss critically its major assumptions.
2. Productivity in word formation is morphologically, phonologically, semantically and aesthetically frustrated. Discuss this assertion giving relevant examples.
3. The negative prefix in- is phonetically manifested in three forms. Identify the forms and state the phonetic contexts in which they occur.
4. The phonetic representations of the Regular Past Tense suffix are always in complementary distribution. Substantiate this argument giving relevant examples.
5. Write short notes on each of the following morphological concerns:
a. A morpheme
b. Trisyllabic Laxing rule.
c. The umlaut rule.
d. The ablaut rule
e. The strict circle conditioning
f. Lexical strata.
g. The Great Vowel Shift.
h. Velar softening
i. Percolation
j. Vowel harmony.
6. (a). two inflectional affixes cannot be functionally identical unless they are in complementary distribution. Substantiate this argument giving relevant examples.
(b) (i) What is the Lexicalist Hypothesis?
(ii) How do word structure rules differ from sentence structure rules?
7. Ablaut is characterized by both regular and irregular vowel mutation in the base. Substantiate this assertion giving phonetically transcribed examples.
8. Provide concise morphological explanations for the inadmissibility of the following linguistic outputs.

a. *inchildish
b. *boughted
c. *Unpossibility
d. *Playeds
e. *Childishless
f. *buildant
g. *carenessless
h. *Taxes-collector
i. faithlyful

9. in detailed manner contrast the following conceptual pairs:
a. velar softening rule vs Trisyllabic Laxing Rule
b. blocking vs Germination
c. bleeding Rule vs Feeding Rule








Bibliography
Katamba,F & J. Stonham (2006) Morphology.2nd Ed. New York:Palgrave MacMillan
Maki S (N/D) Transitivity and Passivization: Object Affectedness as Cognitive Basis of English Passive.
in http//www.flet.keio.ac.jp/~colloq/articles/..
Murthy J. D. (2010) Contemporary English Grammar. New Delhi: Book Palace
Quirk R & Greenbaum S (1985) A University Grammar of English. London Longman
O’Grady et al (1997) Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction: Lonndon: St.Martins Press

Stewart and Vaillet. (2001) Language Files: Materials for An Introduction to Language and
Linguistics: Columbus: Ohio State University Press
Syal and Jindal (2007) An Introduction to Linguistics: Language Grammar and Semantics.
2nd ed. New Delhi: Asoke K, Ghosh, Printice-Hall of India Priate Limited







source; samwiterson.blogspot.com